The DOI matches its Crossref record; 83 of the 83 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 88 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Decomposing attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)-related effects in response speed and variability.
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: Slow and variable reaction times (RTs) on fast tasks are such a prominent feature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) that any theory must account for them. However, this has proven difficult because the cognitive mechanisms responsible for this effect remain unexplained. Although speed and variability are typically correlated, it is unclear whether single or multiple mechanisms are responsible for group differences in each. RTs are a result of several semi-independent processes, including stimulus encoding, rate of information processing, speed-accuracy trade-offs, and motor response, which have not been previously well characterized. METHOD: A diffusion model was applied to RTs from a forced-choice RT paradigm in two large, independent case-control samples (NCohort 1 = 214 and NCohort 2 = 172). The decomposition measured three validated parameters that account for the full RT distribution and assessed reproducibility of ADHD effects. RESULTS: In both samples, group differences in traditional RT variables were explained by slow information processing speed, and unrelated to speed-accuracy trade-offs or nondecisional processes (e.g., encoding, motor response). CONCLUSIONS: RT speed and variability in ADHD may be explained by a single information processing parameter, potentially simplifying explanations that assume different mechanisms are required to account for group differences in the mean and variability of RTs.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Diffusion modeling in two independent case-control samples found that ADHD-related slower and more variable responses were explained by slower information accumulation (drift rate), not by speed-accuracy trade-off or non-decision processes. The authors suggest a single processing parameter may account for both mean and variability effects in ADHD.
Key findings
- In Cohort 1 (214 children: 164 ADHD, 50 controls), the ADHD group had lower go-trial accuracy (d = 0.28) and greater RT variability (d = 0.48), with no mean RT difference; diffusion analysis showed slower drift rate (d = 0.34) but no group differences in boundary separation or non-decision time.
- In Cohort 2 (172 children: 81 ADHD, 91 controls), the ADHD group again had lower accuracy (d = 0.65) and greater RT variability (d = 0.78), with no mean RT difference; drift rate was slower (d = 0.68), while boundary separation and non-decision time did not differ.
- Group effects on accuracy, RT variability, and drift rate did not significantly differ by cohort, though Cohort 1 had lower accuracy, less RT variability, faster drift, older age, lower estimated IQ, and more families below the federal poverty limit than Cohort 2.
- The authors conclude that slow drift rate may be a single mechanism underlying ADHD-related response speed and variability, potentially linked to neural signal-to-noise ratio.
Methods
- Two independent case-control cohorts were recruited in different cities/states using identical screening and diagnostic procedures; diagnoses used parent/teacher rating scales, a semi-structured clinical interview, IQ testing, and clinical team consensus.
- Participants completed a tracking stop task; analyses used go trials (75% of trials) requiring an X/O choice response, with 32 practice trials and 4 blocks of 64 experimental trials. Diffusion parameters—drift rate, boundary separation, and non-decision time—were estimated from full correct and error RT distributions using Fast-dm; anticipation RTs under 150 ms were removed.
- MANCOVAs compared ADHD and control groups on mean RT, RT SD, accuracy, and the three diffusion parameters, with age and estimated IQ as covariates; gender, ODD symptoms, and medication status were initially considered but dropped as non-significant.
Limitations
- The paper states that cohort differences in task performance and drift rate were not explained by age, IQ, or income and likely reflect unmeasured sampling or procedural variation; additional samples are needed to estimate the population effect.
- The paper notes that the diffusion model may not capture attention lapses or contaminant RTs, that stop-task demands may affect speed-accuracy and motor preparation strategies, and that the model addresses single-step decisions rather than multi-step problem solving.
- Evident from the text: the cohorts differed in age range (7–18 vs. 7–12) and sample composition, and ADHD subtypes were collapsed after showing no outcome differences, which may limit generalization across developmental stages and subtype-specific effects.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children with ADHD were less accurate (F[1, 210]= 4.12, p= .044, d= 0.28)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a MANCOVA that included mean RT, standard deviation of RT, and percent accuracy as between-groups measures, with age and estimated IQ as covariates, indicated significant between-groups differences on traditional task performance measures (F[3,208]= 3.55, p= .015)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Significant differences between the two cohorts were identified in task performance measures, including for standard deviation of RT and drift rate.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Groups did not differ in mean RTs (see Table 1).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In regards to non-decision time, the current study found no group differences in non-decision times in either sample.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
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In the paper
“as well as less variable RTs (F[1, 365]= 277.10, p< .001, d = 1.74)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Comparison of Cohorts
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“had lower estimated IQ (F[1, 365]= 33.11, p< .001, d = 0.60)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Comparison of Cohorts
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“had more variable RTs (F[1, 210]= 11.89, p= .001, d= 0.48) than non-ADHD controls”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and had a greater proportion of families making less than the federal poverty limit for a family of four (χ2[8]= 54.21, p< .001)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Comparison of Cohorts
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children with ADHD had slower drift rates than non-ADHD controls (F[1,210]= 5.97, p= .015, d= 0.34)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: In a diffusion model, information about a stimulus is accumulated via a noisy process until a decision criterion is met, at which point a response is initiated.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Participants in forced-choice tasks set criteria for how much information they require before committing to a response.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Individuals who require less information respond more quickly but make more errors than those who require more information.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Processes not directly related to the response decision, such as stimulus encoding and motor preparation, influence final reaction time and must be modeled.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 28
- The quote only partly states this claim. 9
- Probably not a substantial claim. 26
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both cohorts, slow drift rate was detected in the absence of differences in mean RT and the effect size was similar to that of standard deviation of RT (with substantially overlapping confidence intervals for drift rate and standard deviation of RT in both cohorts).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but did not differ in either their speed-accuracy trade-off setting or non-decision time (all p> .157; see Table 1)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
- The authors state this as an assumption: In a diffusion model, information about a stimulus is accumulated via a noisy process until a decision criterion is met, at which point a response is initiated.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Participants in forced-choice tasks set criteria for how much information they require before committing to a response.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Individuals who require less information respond more quickly but make more errors than those who require more information.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Processes not directly related to the response decision, such as stimulus encoding and motor preparation, influence final reaction time and must be modeled.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both samples, group differences in traditional RT variables were explained by slow information processing speed, and unrelated to speed-accuracy trade-offs or non-decisional processes (e.g. encoding, motor response).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
“Diffusion model analyses, which separately estimate the impact of information processing speed/efficiency, speed-accuracy trade-offs, and non-decisional processes (e.g. encoding, motor response), here indicate that children with ADHD have slower/less efficient information processing speed, but do not differ from non-ADHD controls in their speed-accuracy trade-offs or non-decision times.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Abstract > Results
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: In a diffusion model, information about a stimulus is accumulated via a noisy process until a decision criterion is met, at which point a response is initiated.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Participants in forced-choice tasks set criteria for how much information they require before committing to a response.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Individuals who require less information respond more quickly but make more errors than those who require more information.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Processes not directly related to the response decision, such as stimulus encoding and motor preparation, influence final reaction time and must be modeled.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but did not differ in either speed-accuracy trade-off setting or non-decision times (all p> 0.381)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
- The authors state this as an assumption: In a diffusion model, information about a stimulus is accumulated via a noisy process until a decision criterion is met, at which point a response is initiated.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Participants in forced-choice tasks set criteria for how much information they require before committing to a response.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Individuals who require less information respond more quickly but make more errors than those who require more information.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Processes not directly related to the response decision, such as stimulus encoding and motor preparation, influence final reaction time and must be modeled.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, groups did not differ in their mean RTs (Table 2).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A MANCOVA that included all three diffusion model parameters as between-groups measures, with age and estimated IQ as covariates, indicated significant between-group differences (F[5,164]= 8.17, p< .001).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
- The authors state this as an assumption: In a diffusion model, information about a stimulus is accumulated via a noisy process until a decision criterion is met, at which point a response is initiated.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Participants in forced-choice tasks set criteria for how much information they require before committing to a response.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Individuals who require less information respond more quickly but make more errors than those who require more information.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Processes not directly related to the response decision, such as stimulus encoding and motor preparation, influence final reaction time and must be modeled.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children with ADHD were less accurate (F[1, 168]= 17.93, p< .001, d = 0.65)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but did not differ in either speed-accuracy trade-off setting or non-decision times (all p> 0.381)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
- The authors state this as an assumption: In a diffusion model, information about a stimulus is accumulated via a noisy process until a decision criterion is met, at which point a response is initiated.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Participants in forced-choice tasks set criteria for how much information they require before committing to a response.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Individuals who require less information respond more quickly but make more errors than those who require more information.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Processes not directly related to the response decision, such as stimulus encoding and motor preparation, influence final reaction time and must be modeled.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“had more variable RTs (F[1, 168]= 25.67, p< .001, d = 0.78) than non-ADHD controls”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A MANCOVA that included the three diffusion model parameters as between-groups measures, with age and estimated IQ as covariates, indicated significant between-group differences (F[5,206]= 2.55, p= .029).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Task Performance Measures
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
- The authors state this as an assumption: In a diffusion model, information about a stimulus is accumulated via a noisy process until a decision criterion is met, at which point a response is initiated.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Participants in forced-choice tasks set criteria for how much information they require before committing to a response.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Individuals who require less information respond more quickly but make more errors than those who require more information.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Processes not directly related to the response decision, such as stimulus encoding and motor preparation, influence final reaction time and must be modeled.
In the paper
“all of the CPTs included had rare targets (thus a small number of RTs) and used a single-choice RT paradigm”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Abstract > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Huang-Pollock et al., 2012
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“In both samples, subtypes did not significantly differ on any of the outcome variables (mean RT, standard deviation of RT, accuracy, or the three diffusion model parameters), and so subtypes were collapsed into a single ADHD group for all analyses reported below.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Methods > Statistical Analyses
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The ADHD group also had a higher proportion of boys and a higher proportion of children meeting criteria for ODD than non-ADHD controls (all p < .005).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Cohort #1
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants for whom the diffusion model was not able to adequately fit the data, as indicated by significant values for the Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic, would have been excluded from analyses; however, no participants needed to be excluded for this reason.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Methods > Statistical Analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given well-known associations of age and IQ with speed and variability of RTs, results are reported with these covariates included.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Methods > Statistical Analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Groups did not differ in age (p= .489)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Cohort #1
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Diffusion models are well-validated and show strong convergent and divergent validity.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Abstract > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Voss et al., 2004
- Not checked yetcites Ratcliff, 2006
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The sample for the latter study was small, however, and so the confidence interval around the effect is large.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Abstract > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mulder et al., 2010
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The ADHD group also had a higher proportion of boys and a higher proportion of children meeting criteria for ODD than non-ADHD controls (all p < .005).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Cohort #1
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the size of the effects for the three ex-Gaussian parameters have not been directly compared, and it is not clear if the effect for τ is reliably larger than for μ and σ”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Abstract > Conclusions
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As noted above, these variables did not affect results reported.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Cohort #1
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Manipulations of stimulus quality uniquely influence drift rate and manipulations of motor response complexity uniquely influence non-decision time”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Abstract > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Voss et al., 2004
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“diffusion models have been developed to explain decision-making in forced-choice paradigms for which relatively rapid (~1 second) response decisions are required”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Abstract > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ratcliff & Rouder, 1998
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Anticipation RTs (those <150ms) were removed from the distribution because these outlier RTs negatively impact estimation of the diffusion parameters”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Methods > Statistical Analyses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Vandekerckhove & Tuerlinckx, 2007
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“agreement ratings between the members of the diagnostic team were acceptable for ADHD diagnosis (both kappas > .75) and for other disorders with >5% base rate in the sample (all kappas >.70)”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Methods > Participants and Diagnostic Procedures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Gender composition, parent-reported symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and medication status were also initially included as covariates to ensure they did not account for the results. However, none significantly contributed to the model (all p> .428) and so results reported are without these covariates.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Methods > Statistical Analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“diagnoses were established via a multi-gate process. A parent/guardian and teacher completed standardized rating scales”
- Also stated in: § Participants and Diagnostic Procedures · plain
“The parent/guardian also completed a semi-structured clinical interview administered by a Master’s-level clinician who had achieved research reliability on the interview”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Methods > Participants and Diagnostic Procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Achenbach & Rescorla, 1991
- Not checked yetcites Conners, 2003
- Not checked yetcites Kaufman et al., 1997
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § Participants and Diagnostic Procedures · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“because diffusion parameters estimates did not differ when stop+1 trials were included/excluded (all interactions with stop+1 trial presence were non-significant at p >.07, η2 < .03), the results reported are with the stop+1 trials included”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Methods > Statistical Analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the processes responsible for slow and variable RTs in ADHD remain in need of further clarification.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Abstract > Conclusions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, we conclude that speed-accuracy trade-off is not a primary explanation for ADHD-associated effects related to RT variability because robust group differences in variability were seen in the current study even in the absence of these trade-offs.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Within a diffusion model framework, drift rate is hypothesized to reflect signal:noise ratio in the neural networks supporting decision-making”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Beck et al., 2008
- Not checked yetcites Ratcliff et al., 2003
- Not checked yetcites Heekeren et al., 2008
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Groups did not differ in their age or estimated IQs (all p> 0.10).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Cohort #2
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the present results provide a clarification and, perhaps, a more robust parameter for use in modeling ADHD cognitive processing in future work, although direct comparison of the size of effects for diffusion, ex-Gaussian, and signal detection parameters will be needed.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, as noted earlier, the d′ parameter is vulnerable to artifact when error rates depart markedly from 50%, which is often the case in ADHD studies using cognitive tasks.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“DLPFC structural and functional differences are also associated with ADHD and with performance on tasks demanding cognitive control (for reviews see Bush, Valera, & Seidman, 2005; Paloyelis, Mehta, Kuntsi, & Asherson, 2007).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bush, Valera, & Seidman, 2005
- Not checked yetcites Paloyelis, Mehta, Kuntsi, & Asherson, 2007
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Initial evidence from direct single-cell recordings in primates (Kim & Shadlen, 1999), as well as functional imaging studies (Heekeren, Marrett, Bandettini, & Ungerleider, 2004; Heekeren, Marrett, Ruff, Bandettini, & Ungerleider, 2006) and transcranial magnetic stimulation studies in human(Philiastides, et al., 2011), suggests that the DLPFC is involved in decision-making independent of stimulus”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kim & Shadlen, 1999
- Not checked yetcites Heekeren, Marrett, Bandettini, & Ungerleider, 2004
- Not checked yetcites Heekeren, Marrett, Ruff, Bandettini, & Ungerleider, 2006
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The only other study applying diffusion modeling in ADHD used a motion coherence paradigm and specifically manipulated stimulus discrimination difficulty to be equivalent across participants, thereby intentionally minimizing group differences in drift rate, preventing comparison with current results”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mulder et al., 2010
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The ADHD group had a higher proportion of boys and a higher proportion of children meeting criteria for ODD than non-ADHD controls (all p < .007).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Results > Cohort #2
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, because ex-Gaussian parameters lack clear cognitive interpretations, group differences in the upper tail are often interpreted as reflecting unique cognitive mechanisms from those affecting the mean of the distribution(Hervey, et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, et al., 2000).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hervey, et al., 2006
- Not checked yetcites Leth-Steensen, et al., 2000
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These between-cohort difference could not be explained by sample differences in demographic characteristics, such as age, estimated IQ, or income, but instead likely reflect unmeasured sampling variation or undetected procedural variations across sites.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, some of the evidence suggests that children with ADHD do not have baseline differences in their tendency to prioritize speed over accuracy, but are less able than non-ADHD controls to adjust speed-accuracy settings in different contexts (e.g., depending on instructional set).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“while the speed-accuracy trade-off parameter has been associated with activation in the basal ganglia (Forstmann et al., 2008).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Forstmann et al., 2008
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results also suggest a new phenotypic target for imaging analyses.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Conclusion
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At the same time, this suggests that estimation of the population effect of drift rate in ADHD will require additional samples.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, although based on our data it is possible that between-group differences in RT variability may be explained by slow drift rates, there may also be other factors contributing to increased standard deviation of RT in ADHD that the diffusion model does not address.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, only one parameter would be needed to address slow and variable RT in ADHD, simplifying neural and process models.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, the demands of the stop task may change how motor preparatory processes are carried out, impacting non-decision times.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Prior neuroscience studies lead us to infer that these results are consistent with ADHD-related findings in white matter integrity, as well as with functional imaging studies suggesting that children with ADHD showing an inability to suppress resting-state activation.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Conclusion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That, in turn, is conceptually related to neural signal:noise ratio.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Conclusion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, while the diffusion model may accurately produce parameter estimates when applied in the context of a stop task, it cannot answer questions about how the task context affects individual’s strategies for decision-making when applied to a single task.”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the current sample, results did not change when we removed all trials immediately following a stop trial, supporting our interpretation of parameters estimates from this task”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The diffusion model has been applied successfully to a wide range of tasks including the stop task, with consistently good fit to the data (Ratcliff & McKoon, 2008).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ratcliff & McKoon, 2008
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“However, previous work in adults using the diffusion model suggests that individuals make strategic adjustments to their speed-accuracy trade-off settings on go trials to maximize their ability to inhibit responses on stop trials (Verbruggen & Logan, 2009).”
§ Decomposing ADHD-Related Effects in Response Speed and Variability > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Verbruggen & Logan, 2009
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
Mean and variability of reaction time are highly correlated.
“although mean and variability of RT are highly correlated”
The authors state this as an assumption.
In a diffusion model, information about a stimulus is accumulated via a noisy process until a decision criterion is met, at which point a response is initiated.
“a diffusion model assumes that information about a stimulus is accumulated via a noisy information accumulation process until a decision criterion is met, at which point a response is initiated”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Participants in forced-choice tasks set criteria for how much information they require before committing to a response.
“participants are assumed to set criteria for how much information they require to commit to either of the response options”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Individuals who require less information respond more quickly but make more errors than those who require more information.
“Individuals who require less information will respond more quickly but will also make more errors than those who require more information.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Processes not directly related to the response decision, such as stimulus encoding and motor preparation, influence final reaction time and must be modeled.
“processes that are not directly related to the response decision, such as stimulus encoding and motor preparation, also influence the final RT and so must be modeled”
The paper relies on this without support.
Traditional RT variables show broad patterns of association with structural and functional neuroimaging measures.
“Whereas traditional RT variables show broad patterns of association with structural and functional neuroimaging measures”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“As several studies have confirmed the variability of performance of ADHD participants on inhibitory tasks (Huang-Pollock et al., 2012; Karalunas et al., 2012; Mulder et al., 2010), our results may further validate the necessity for subgroup splitting.”
From Heterogeneity of executive function revealed by a functional random forest approach across ADHD and ASD (2020) · cites this paper as Karalunas et al., 2012
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Cohort 2 diffusion MANCOVA repeats the degrees-of-freedom mismatch
MinorThe two Cohort 2 MANCOVAs likewise have three outcomes and the same covariates, yet the diffusion test reports F[5,164] rather than degrees of freedom consistent with the traditional-measures test's F[3,166].
“A MANCOVA that included all three diffusion model parameters as between-groups measures, with age and estimated IQ as covariates, indicated significant between-group differences (F[5,164]= 8.17, p< .001).”
“A MANCOVA that included mean RT, standard deviation of RT, and percent accuracy as between-groups measures, with age and estimated IQ as covariates, indicated significant between-group differences on traditional task performance measures (F[3,166]= 11.40, p< .001).”
Citations
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Huang-Pollock CL Karalunas SL Tam H Moore AN in press Evaluating vigilance deficits in adhd: A meta-analysis of cpt performance Journal of Abnormal Psychology PMC3664643 22428793
- Karalunas SL Huang-Pollock CL (revise and resubmit) Integrating evidence of slow rts and impaired executive functions using a diffusion model framework Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology PMC3679296 23334775
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Karalunas, S. L., Fair, D., Musser, E. D., Aykes, K., Iyer, S. P., & Nigg, J. T. (2014) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.763 · Cited by 340
Self-citationRetractedKaralunas, S. L., Geurts, H. M., Konrad, K., Bender, S., & Nigg, J. T. (2014) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12217 · Cited by 278
Self-citationOstlund, B. D., Alperin, B. R., Drew, T., & Karalunas, S. L. (2021) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2021.100931 · Cited by 159
Self-citationModel Complexity in Diffusion Modeling: Benefits of Making the Model More Parsimonious
Lerche, V., & Voß, A. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01324 · Cited by 146
Toward a revised nosology for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder heterogeneity
Nigg, J. T., Karalunas, S. L., Feczko, E., & Fair, D. A. (2020) · Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.02.005 · Cited by 132
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Karalunas, S. L., Huang-Pollock, C. L., & Nigg, J. T.
- Affiliations
- Oregon Health & Science University (US)
- Venue
- Neuropsychology
- Published
- 2012
- Volume
- 26
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 684-694
- ISSN
- 0894-4105 (ISSN-L)
- 1931-1559
- PMC
- PMC3516369
- OpenAlex
- W1967147115
- Semantic Scholar
- 08e95afb83ba840c4b6c76a89b083d16fb4c5c88
- Cited by
- 104
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 6
- FWCI
- 3.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (F32MH098632, R01MH059105, R01MH084947)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, reaction time, response variability, diffusion models, processing speed, speed-accuracy trade-off, stimulus encoding, motor response
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Female, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Male, Models, Psychological, Neuropsychological Tests, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Cohort Studies, Case-Control Studies
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-06, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-06 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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