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Cited by 348Personality Traits and PsychologyChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

Low and decreasing self-esteem during adolescence predict adult depression two decades later.

Open access
Steiger, Andrea E., Allemand, Mathias, Robins, Richard W., Fend, Helmut A.·2014·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
DOI 10.1037/a0035133
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Abstract

Individuals who entered adolescence with low self-esteem, and/or whose self-esteem declined further during the adolescent years, were more likely to exhibit symptoms of depression 2 decades later as adults.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Using a 23-year German longitudinal study, this paper finds that adolescents’ self-esteem level and change from ages 12 to 16 predict depressive symptoms at age 35. Both starting low and declining further during adolescence were linked to more adult depressive symptoms, for global and domain-specific self-esteem.

Key findings

  • Global self-esteem level and change each predicted adult depression: level β = −.36, p < .001; change β = −.22, p < .001, controlling for age-16 depression and covariates.
  • Domain-specific effects also emerged at age 35: physical appearance level β = −.21, p < .001 and change β = −.12, p < .05; academic competence level β = −.15, p < .01 and change β = −.18, p < .01.
  • Self-esteem generally increased across adolescence in this sample, with significant individual differences in both initial level and change. Males reported higher global self-esteem (β = .21), physical appearance (β = .22), and academic competence (β = .22) than females, but no gender difference appeared for change.

Methods

  • Data came from the German LifE study: N = 1,527 participants followed from ages 12–16 (annual assessments, 1979–1983) to age 35 (2002), representing 74% of the original sample.
  • Global self-esteem used eight Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale items; domain-specific self-esteem measured physical appearance and academic competence with six items each; depression used 13 BDI items at age 16 and seven BDI-V items at age 35.
  • Second-order latent growth curve models in Mplus with full-information maximum likelihood estimated level and change, then predicted age-16 and age-35 depressive symptoms, including time-varying covariates: peer popularity for global self-esteem, BMI for physical appearance, and school grades for academic competence.

Limitations

  • The paper states all measures were self-report; for depression, clinician or informant measures would help address possible reporting bias and shared method variance, though it argues shared method variance is unlikely to explain the age-35 effect after controlling for age-16 depression.
  • The paper states adolescent depression was measured only at age 16, so the alternative “scar” model could not be tested; the adult depression measure had only seven items and no clinical cutoff, and the two depression measures differed in state-like versus trait-like format.
  • The paper notes domain-specific self-esteem covered only appearance and academic competence, personality traits such as neuroticism were unavailable, and future work could test other domains and moderators; evident from the design, the study is observational and cannot establish causality.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/a0035133

Cites

91 of 91 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

12 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

5 of 46 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Changes in self and personality exert predictive power for important life outcomes such as mortality, substance abuse, or self-rated health.

    “these changes exert predictive power for such important life outcomes as mortality (Mroczek & Spiro, 2007), substance abuse (Hampson, Tildesley, Andrews, Luckyx, & Mroczek, 2010) or self-rated health (Turiano, Pitzer, Armour, Karlamangla, Ryff, & Mroczek, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Mroczek & Spiro, 2007 source
    • cites Hampson, Tildesley, Andrews, Luckyx, & Mroczek, 2010 source

      The Discussion (Growth of Adolescent Substance Use and Childhood Traits; page unavailable) says that differences in the rate of childhood personality-trait change predicted later substance use. The Discussion (Strengths and Limitations; page unavailable) says the study did not distinguish increasing use from problematic use, such as binge drinking. It therefore supports prediction of substance use, but not substance abuse specifically. The other outcomes in the citing sentence are attributed to other sources. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Turiano, Pitzer, Armour, Karlamangla, Ryff, & Mroczek, 2012 source
  • Findingown data

    Decreasing self-esteem during adolescence predicts more depressive symptoms in adulthood two decades later.

    “Individuals who entered adolescence with low self-esteem, and/or whose self-esteem declined further during the adolescent years, were more likely to exhibit symptoms of depression 2 decades later as adults; this pattern held both for global and domain-specific self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The predictive effects of self-esteem level and change on adult depression hold for both global and domain-specific self-esteem.

    “this pattern held both for global and domain-specific self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Low level of self-esteem at the beginning of adolescence predicts more depressive symptoms in adulthood two decades later.

    “Individuals who entered adolescence with low self-esteem, and/or whose self-esteem declined further during the adolescent years, were more likely to exhibit symptoms of depression 2 decades later as adults; this pattern held both for global and domain-specific self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Academic competence self-esteem was moderately stable over time, with correlations of .52 (age 12 to 13), .58 (age 13 to 14), .57 (age 14 to 15), and .66 (age 15 to 16).

    “The two self-esteem domains were moderately stable over time, both for the domain of academic competence [.52 (age 12 to 13), .58(age 13 to 14), .57(age 14 to 15) and .66(age 15 to 16)]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 54
  • May combine two claims. 17
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 5

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Self-esteem generally decreases across the adolescent years.

    “A large body of research suggests that self-esteem generally decreases across the adolescent years (Robins, Trzesniewski, Tracy, Gosling, & Potter, 2002;Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005;Zimmerman et al., 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Robins, Trzesniewski, Tracy, Gosling, & Potter, 2002 source
    • cites Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005 source
    • cites Zimmerman et al., 1997 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Peer popularity is related to higher self-esteem.

    “Indeed, research supports the assumption that peer popularity is related to higher self-esteem (e.g., Litwack, Aikins, Cillessen, 2012;Thomaes et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Litwack, Aikins, Cillessen, 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Thomaes et al., 2010 source

      The Primary Analyses report that children whose state self-esteem fell after disapproval showed greater recovery when they spent more time viewing positive feedback from perceived popular peers. The study concerns the popularity of the peers giving feedback, not whether children who are themselves more popular have higher self-esteem. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The process of integrating positive and negative characteristics should be resolved by the end of adolescence, leading to an increase in self-esteem at the beginning of adulthood.

    “This process of integrating positive and negative characteristics should be resolved by the end of adolescence, leading to an increase in selfesteem at the beginning of adulthood (Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005 source

      The Adulthood section says self-esteem increases gradually throughout adulthood, and the Childhood section says it declines during adolescence. Neither section says that integrating positive and negative characteristics is resolved by the end of adolescence or that this resolution causes the increase in self-esteem. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Global self-esteem was moderately stable over time, with correlations of .58 (age 12 to 13), .59 (age 13 to 14), .63 (age 14 to 15), and .58 (age 15 to 16), all p < .001.

    “The global self-esteem scale was moderately stable over time with correlations of .58(age 12 to 13), .59(age 13 to 14), .63(age 14 to 15), and .58(age 15 to 16), all p < .001.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Global and domain-specific self-esteem increased across adolescence.

    “The results demonstrated increases in both global and domain-specific self-esteem across adolescence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Variances of the level parameters were significant for all three constructs, indicating that participants differed in their initial levels of self-esteem.

    “Moreover, the variances of the level parameters were significant for all three constructs, indicating that participants differed in their initial levels of how positively they see themselves.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Physical appearance self-esteem was moderately stable over time, with correlations of .52 (age 12 to 13), .65 (age 13 to 14), .69 (age 14 to 15), and .74 (age 15 to 16).

    “and for the domain of physical appearance [.52 (age 12 to 13), .65 (age 13 to 14), .69(age 14 to 15), and .74(age 15 to 16)] (see Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Correlations between the domain-specific self-esteem of physical appearance and academic competence were small to medium-sized, indicating the constructs differ between individuals.

    “Correlations between the domainspecific self-esteem of physical appearance and academic indicated that these constructs differ between individuals, revealing only small to medium-sized correlations (see Table 4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Males reported more positive perceptions of their physical appearance than females (β = .22, p < .001).

    “as well as more positive perceptions of their physical appearance (β = .22,p < .001)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the seven-item analysis, global self-esteem change had small to medium-sized effects on depressive symptoms at age 16 (β = -.40, p < .001) and at age 35 (β = -.21, p < .001).

    “Additionally and equal to our original analysis, also self-esteem change had small to medium-sized effects on depressive symptoms at age 16 (β = -.40,p <.001) and at age 35 (β = -.21,p <.001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The seven depression items measured at age 16 and age 35 are conceptually equal and measure the same construct.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Males reported more positive academic competence than females (β = .22, p < .001).

    “and academic competence (β = .22,p < .001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Results for the adapted SAC model remained virtually identical compared to the original model.

    “and again, results remained virtually identical compared to our original model.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Physical appearance self-esteem level negatively predicted depressive symptoms at age 35 (β = -.21, p < .001) in the model using only the seven corresponding depression items.

    “we found small to medium-sized effects of self-esteem level on depressive symptoms at age 16 (β = -.27,p <.001) and at age 35 (β = -.21,p <.001)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Physical appearance self-esteem change does not significantly predict depressive symptoms at age 35 (standardized β = -.11, not significant) in the model without covariates.

    “Physical appearance change | -.20** | -.11”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Academic competence self-esteem change negatively predicts depressive symptoms at age 16 (standardized β = -.31, p < .001) in the model without covariates.

    “Academic competence change | -.31*** | -.15**”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Academic competence self-esteem level mean was 2.92 (p < .001) in the latent growth model.

    “Academic competence | 2.92*** | .517*** | .377*** | .036*** | -.416***”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Physical appearance self-esteem level mean was 2.99 (p < .001) in the latent growth model.

    “Physical appearance | 2.99*** | .450*** | .192** | .021*** | -.319***”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Physical appearance self-esteem change negatively predicts depressive symptoms at age 16 (standardized β = -.20, p < .01) in the model without covariates.

    “Physical appearance change | -.20** | -.11”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Global self-esteem level mean was 3.59 (p < .001) in the latent growth model.

    “Self-esteem | 3.59*** | .642*** | .301*** | .031*** | -.401***”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Physical appearance self-esteem change mean was .192 (p < .01) in the latent growth model.

    “Physical appearance | 2.99*** | .450*** | .192** | .021*** | -.319***”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Physical appearance self-esteem level negatively predicted depressive symptoms at age 16 (β = -.27, p < .001) in the model using only the seven corresponding depression items.

    “we found small to medium-sized effects of self-esteem level on depressive symptoms at age 16 (β = -.27,p <.001) and at age 35 (β = -.21,p <.001)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Academic competence self-esteem change mean was .377 (p < .001) in the latent growth model.

    “Academic competence | 2.92*** | .517*** | .377*** | .036*** | -.416***”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Initial levels of self-esteem predicted changes in depression, whereas initial levels of depression did not predict changes in self-esteem.

    “Consistent with the vulnerability model, Kim and Chicchetti (2006) found that initial levels of self-esteem predicted changes in depression, whereas initial levels of depression did not predict changes in self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kim and Chicchetti, 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Individuals who decreased in self-esteem during adolescence were more prone to peer pressure, alcohol misuse, and tolerance for deviance during the four years of the study.

    “Zimmerman et al. (1997) demonstrated that individuals who decreased in self-esteem during their adolescent years were more prone to peer pressure, alcohol misuse, and tolerance for deviance during the four years of the study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zimmerman et al., 1997 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low self-esteem acts as a risk factor for depression but not vice versa.

    “Orth et al. (2009) demonstrated that low selfesteem acts as a risk factor for depression but not vice versa.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Orth et al., 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Adolescents with low self-esteem are less likely to search for positive feedback from others.

    “Another mechanism could be that adolescents with low self-esteem are less likely to search for positive feedback from others (Cassidy, Ziv, Mehta, & Feeney, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cassidy, Ziv, Mehta, & Feeney, 2003 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low self-esteem causally influences the onset and maintenance of depression.

    “The basic idea of the vulnerability model is that low self-esteem causally influences the onset and maintenance of depression (Beck, 1967;Metalski, Joiner, Hardin, & Abramson, 1993).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Beck, 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Metalski, Joiner, Hardin, & Abramson, 1993

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Negative beliefs about oneself are a key cause in the etiology of depression.

    “Hence, according to Beck's (1967) cognitive theory of depression, negative beliefs about oneself are a key cause in the etiology of depression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Beck, 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Self-esteem changes over time.

    “However, self-esteem has been shown to change over time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Domain-specific self-evaluations, specifically perceived physical appearance and social skills, at age 12 and 14 were related to subsequent depressive mood, albeit with weaker effects than global self-esteem.

    “Finally, Bolognini, Plancherel, Bettschart, and Halfon (1996) showed that domain-specific self-evaluations, specifically perceived physical appearance and social skills, at age 12 and 14 were related to subsequent depressive mood, albeit with weaker effects than global self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bolognini, Plancherel, Bettschart, and Halfon, 1996 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Individuals displaying dysfunctional attitudes or negative inferential styles about themselves are at greater risk for developing depressive symptoms.

    “This model assumes that individuals displaying dysfunctional attitudes or negative inferential styles about themselves are at greater risk for developing depressive symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The analysis controlled for peer popularity when examining the effect of global self-esteem.

    “First, we controlled for peer popularity when examining the effect of global self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There is a positive association between academic achievement and perceived academic competence.

    “Second, as previous research demonstrates a positive association between academic achievement and perceived academic competence (Guay, Marsh &, Boivin, 2003;Marsh & Craven, 2006), we included the participants' school grades as an annual covariate when examining the effects of perceived academic competence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Guay, Marsh &, Boivin, 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Marsh & Craven, 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The gender difference in self-esteem may be explained by divergent socialization experiences, different gender roles, or stronger cultural emphasis on girls' physical appearance.

    “The gender difference may be explained by divergent socialization experiences such as a tendency to give boys more autonomy than girls, different gender roles such as self-confidence being more valued in boys, or a stronger cultural emphasis on girls' physical appearance, together with idealized body images portrayed in the media, which may lead to lower self-esteem in girls (Kling et al., 1999).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kling et al., 1999 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The age 16 depression measure (13 BDI items) had an alpha reliability estimate of .89.

    “The alpha reliability estimate was .89.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Some studies have found evidence for an increase in self-esteem during adolescence.

    “Although the bulk of the evidence points to a drop in self-esteem during adolescence, there are some inconsistencies in the literature and several studies have found evidence for an increase (e.g., Demo, 1992;McLeod & Owens, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Demo, 1992

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites McLeod & Owens, 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The physical appearance self-esteem scale had KR-20 reliability estimates between .65 and .72.

    “The reliability estimates (KR-20) ranged from .65 to .72 for physical appearance and from .77 to .82 for academic competence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    74% (N = 1,527) of the initial study participants participated at the age 35 follow-up (T6).

    “From the initial study participants, 74% (N = 1,527) participated at T6.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The BDI-V and original BDI correlated equally high with self-reported depression and expert ratings of depression.

    “Comparison of the original scale with the new version revealed that both versions correlated equally high with self-reported depression and expert ratings of depression (Schmitt, Beckmann, Dusi, Maes, Schiller, & Schonauer, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schmitt, Beckmann, Dusi, Maes, Schiller, & Schonauer, 2003 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Second-order latent growth models allow controlling for measurement error when analyzing structural relationships because they analyze change at the latent rather than observed level.

    “Because these models analyze change at the latent rather than at the observed level, this approach allows controlling for measurement error when analyzing structural relationships.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The depression scale had an alpha reliability estimate of .84.

    “The alpha reliability estimate was .84.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Males report higher self-esteem, on average, than females, with the largest gender gap observed during adolescence.

    “A metaanalytic review by Kling, Hyde, Showers, and Buswell (1999) revealed that males report higher self-esteem, on average, than females, with the largest gender gap observed during adolescence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kling, Hyde, Showers, and Buswell, 1999 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is a negative association between BMI and both perceived physical appearance and depression.

    “First, as previous research suggests a negative association between BMI and both perceived physical appearance and depression (O'Dea, 2006; Mustillo, Hendrix, & Schafer, 2012), we controlled for the potential influence of BMI when examining the effects of physical appearance on depressive symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites O'Dea, 2006 source
    • cites Mustillo, Hendrix, & Schafer, 2012 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Decreasing self-esteem (global and domain-specific) from age 12 to 14 was related to higher levels of depression at age 14.

    “Finally, Bolognini et al. (1996) demonstrated that decreasing selfesteemglobal and domain-specificfrom age 12 to 14 was related to higher levels of depression at age 14.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bolognini et al., 1996 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The academic competence self-esteem scale had KR-20 reliability estimates between .77 and .82.

    “The reliability estimates (KR-20) ranged from .65 to .72 for physical appearance and from .77 to .82 for academic competence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The analysis controlled for school grades when examining the effect of academic competence.

    “Third, we controlled for the grades that participants had received during the five-year school period when examining the effect of academic competence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The global self-esteem scale had KR-20 reliability estimates between .72 and .77 across the five measurement occasions.

    “Kuder-Richardson (1937) reliability estimates (KR-20) ranged between .72 and .77for the five measurement occasions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The present study uses data from a large, nationally representative sample for the used variables.

    “Fourth, the present study uses data from a large, nationally representative sample for the used variables.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The adolescent drop in self-esteem is discussed as a consequence of maturational changes (puberty), cognitive changes (formal operational thinking), and contextual changes (school transitions).

    “This adolescent drop in self-esteem has been discussed as a consequence of maturational changes (puberty), cognitive changes (formal operational thinking), and contextual changes (school transitions) (Trzesniewski, Robins, Roberts, & Caspi, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Trzesniewski, Robins, Roberts, & Caspi, 2003 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The analysis controlled for body mass index (BMI) when examining the effect of perceived physical appearance.

    “Second, we controlled for body mass index (BMI) when examining the effect of perceived physical appearance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The BDI-V and original BDI had a high correlation on sum scores (r = .91) and on symptoms (r = .70).

    “Furthermore, they discriminated depressed and non-depressed individuals equally well and the two versions had a high correlation both on the level of sum scores (r = .91)and on the level of symptoms (r = .70)(Schmitt et al., 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schmitt et al., 2003 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Adolescents typically begin to see themselves in a more critical and differentiated way, displacing the overly positive and holistic self-views they maintained in childhood.

    “Adolescents typically begin to see themselves in a more critical and differentiated way, displacing the overly positive and holistic self-views (”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Harter, 1999

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    The BDI-V scale was developed on the basis of the original BDI.

    “Note however, that the BDI-V scale is developed on the basis of the original BDI.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    These results provide a basis for interventions in enhancing self-esteem during adolescence.

    “These results provide a basis for interventions in enhancing self-esteem during adolescencethus, during an age period when self-esteem is especially malleable.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Self-esteem is especially malleable during adolescence.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Depression was assessed more state-like at age 16 (original BDI) compared to a more trait-like measure at age 35 (simplified version of BDI; BDI-V).

    “Depression was assessed more state-like at age 16 (original BDI) compared to a more trait-like measure at age 35 (simplified version of BDI; BDI-V).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The two depression scales have high convergent validity and a similar pattern of external correlates, confirming a similar nomological network.

    “Furthermore, the two scales have been compared extensively by Schmitt et al. (2003), clearly showing high convergent validity and a similar pattern of external correlates, confirming that they have a similar nomological network.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schmitt et al. (2003) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Adolescent females have lower self-esteem than males but follow the same trajectory across adolescence.

    “Thus, adolescent females have lower self-esteem than males but follow the same trajectory across adolescence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    In the follow-up survey, the study was restricted to seven items indicating depressive symptoms.

    “In the follow-up survey, we were restricted to seven items indicating depressive symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Most of the variance in depression is due to a trait and not to a state component.

    “As shown in a study using longitudinal modeling of depression scores across adolescence and adulthood, most of the variance in depression is due to a trait and not to a state component (Cole & Martin, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cole & Martin, 2005 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The vulnerability model proposes that low self-esteem is a cause rather than a consequence of depression.

    “Therefore, we only tested the vulnerability model, which proposes that low self-esteem is a cause rather than a consequence of depression (e.g., Beck, 1987).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Beck, 1987

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The measures were all based on self-reports.

    “First, the measures were all based on self-reports.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Not only adolescent self-esteem level but also self-esteem change plays a crucial role in the prevention of depressive symptoms still two decades later.

    “We could reveal that not only adolescent self-esteem level but also self-esteem change plays a crucial role in the prevention of depressive symptoms still two decades later.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The findings demonstrate that positive self-esteem development reduces risk for depressive symptoms both in adolescence and two decades later in adulthood.

    “In summary, these findings demonstrate the power of positive self-esteem development to reduce risk for depressive symptoms both in adolescence and two decades later in adulthood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Depressive symptoms were only collected at one measurement wave at age 16.

    “First, depressive symptoms were only collected at one measurement wave at age 16.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The prospective effect of depression on self-esteem is typically small or non-existent.

    “the prospective effect of depression on self-esteem is typically small or non-existent (Sowislo & Orth, 2012)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sowislo & Orth, 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The model of physical appearance self-esteem with only the seven corresponding depression items at ages 16 and 35 showed good fit (χ2(355) = 809.90, p < .001, CFI = .953, RMSEA = .029, 90% CI = .026-.032).

    “Model fit of the self-esteem of physical appearance (SPA) with only the seven corresponding depression items at age 16 and 35 was well too, χ 2 (355) = 809.90,p < .001,CFI = .953,RMSEA = .029(90% CI = .026-.032)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Schafer, Wickrama, and Keith (1998) found adult self-esteem level predicting depression in a small sample of 98 married couples over 13 years.

    “One exception is the study by Schafer, Wickrama, and Keith (1998), who found adult selfesteem level predicting depression in a small sample of 98 married couples over 13 years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schafer, Wickrama, and Keith (1998) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Global self-esteem showed KR-20 reliability of .73 to .77 across ages 12 to 16.

    “Self-esteem a | 5.66 | .73 | 5.48 | .72 | 5.74 | .77 | 5.89 | .77 | 6.05 | .77”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
68 of 68

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Little is known about the predictive effects of developmental change in self-esteem on long-term consequential outcomes.

    “However, little is known about the predictive effects of developmental change in self-esteem on long-term consequential outcomes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Almost no research has been conducted on self-esteem change as a predictor of depression.

    “To date, almost no research has been conducted on self-esteem change as a predictor of depression.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Individual differences in change reveal substantial information relevant for later life outcomes because they reflect more or less successful adaptation to age-specific developmental tasks.

    “We therefore assume that individual differences in change reveal substantial information that are relevant for later life outcomes because they reflect more or less successful adaptation to age-specific developmental tasks.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    It is not necessary to initially possess high self-esteem baseline level at the beginning of adolescence.

    “Thus, although a positive prerequisite, we assume that it is not necessary to initially possess high self-esteem baseline level at the beginning of adolescence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No research has been conducted on the long-term consequences of adolescent self-esteem on adult depression over a time span of two decades.

    “However, to date, no research has been conducted on the long-term consequences of adolescent self-esteem on adult depression over a time span of two decades.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Little is known about the developmental trajectory of domain-specific self-esteem during adolescence.

    “Moreover, we know little about the developmental trajectory of domain-specific self-esteem during adolescence, and it is possible that the trajectory for these constructs diverges from that found for global self-esteem.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most previous research has focused on global self-esteem and neglected domain-specific evaluations such as perceived physical appearance or academic competence.

    “Third, most previous research has focused on global self-esteem and neglected domain-specific evaluations such as perceived physical appearance or academic competence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The seven depression items measured at age 16 and age 35 are conceptually equal and measure the same construct.

    “we extracted the conceptually equal seven items measured at T5 and T6”
    “using only these seven corresponding items”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Self-esteem is especially malleable during adolescence.

    “during an age period when self-esteem is especially malleable.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    No other study has tested for effects of adolescent development within a timeframe of over twenty years.

    “To the best of our knowledge, no other study tested for effects of adolescent development within a timeframe of over twenty years.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Low self-esteem is a cause of depression (the vulnerability model's assumption).

    “Although the vulnerability model assumes that low self-esteem is a cause of depression”
11 of 11

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value: χ 2 (156) = 216.10,p < .0001

    Minor

    The paper reports p < .0001 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .001. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p < .0001 · recomputed p = .001

1 of 1

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upχ²(156) = 216.1reported p < .0001 · recomputed p = .001

    “χ 2 (156) = 216.10,p < .0001”

  • Consistentχ²(39) = 98.8reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (39) = 98.80, p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(39) = 89.52reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (39) = 89.52,p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(39) = 79.48reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (39) = 79.48,p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(46) = 109.81reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (46) = 109.81,p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(46) = 100.65reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (46) = 100.65,p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(46) = 91.94reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (46) = 91.94,p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(159) = 278.94reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ 2 (159) = 278.94,p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(145) = 257.88reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ 2 (145) = 257.88,p < .0001”

  • Consistentχ²(375) = 920.91reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ 2 (375) = 920.91,p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(375) = 847.01reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ 2 (375) = 847.01,p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(355) = 809.9reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ 2 (355) = 809.90,p < .001”

12 of 12

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Table 2 labels near-zero correlations as significant

    Minor

    The note says every correlation is significant at p < .01, but the table includes correlations as small as .011. With N = 1,527, a correlation of .011 is not significant at that level.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

7 of the 98 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. [8]8. Beck, A. T. (1987). Cognitive models of depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 1, 2-27.
  2. [15]15. Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 558-577.
  3. [72]72. Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Steiger, A. E., Allemand, M., Robins, R. W., & Fend, H. A.
Affiliations
  • University of Zurich (CH)
  • University of California, Davis (US)
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2014
Volume
106
Issue
2
Pages
325-338
ISSN
  • 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1315
DOI
10.1037/a0035133
OpenAlex
W2035586614
Cited by
348
References
98
Citations by year
2026: 19 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 1
FWCI
31.08
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
other-oa
Locations
  • Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
  • Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation
  • Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
  • Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (56992)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords
self-esteem, adolescent self-esteem, self-esteem change, adult depression, depressive symptoms, physical attractiveness, academic competence, domain-specific self-esteem, longitudinal development, mental health outcomes
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Child, Depressive Disorder, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Germany, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Personality Development, Risk Factors, Self Concept, Adolescent Development

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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