Adolescents’ cognitive capacity reaches adult levels prior to their psychosocial maturity: Evidence for a “maturity gap” in a multinational, cross-sectional sample
Open accessAbstract
All countries distinguish between minors and adults for various legal purposes. Recent U.S. Supreme Court cases concerning the legal status of juveniles have consulted psychological science to decide where to draw these boundaries. However, little is known about the robustness of the relevant research, because it has been conducted largely in the U.S. and other Western countries. To the extent that lawmakers look to research to guide their decisions, it is important to know how generalizable the scientific conclusions are. The present study examines 2 psychological phenomena relevant to legal questions about adolescent maturity: cognitive capacity, which undergirds logical thinking, and psychosocial maturity, which comprises individuals' ability to restrain themselves in the face of emotional, exciting, or risky stimuli. Age patterns of these constructs were assessed in 5,227 individuals (50.7% female), ages 10-30 (M = 17.05, SD = 5.91) from 11 countries. Importantly, whereas cognitive capacity reached adult levels around age 16, psychosocial maturity reached adult levels beyond age 18, creating a "maturity gap" between cognitive and psychosocial development. Juveniles may be capable of deliberative decision making by age 16, but even young adults may demonstrate "immature" decision making in arousing situations. We argue it is therefore reasonable to have different age boundaries for different legal purposes: 1 for matters in which cognitive capacity predominates, and a later 1 for matters in which psychosocial maturity plays a substantial role. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Behavioral research has demonstrated for decades that by mid-adolescence, young people are comparable to adults in their ability to make deliberative decisions, including working memory, logical reasoning, weighing risks and benefits, and anticipating consequences of their actions.
“Specifically, behavioral research has demonstrated for decades that by mid-adolescence, young people are comparable to adults in their ability to make deliberative decisions, including specific abilities in working memory, logical reasoning, weighing risks and benefits, and anticipating consequences of their actions (Icenogle et al., 2019; Reyna et al., 2015; Steinberg, 2013).”
From The role (and limits) of developmental neuroscience in determining adolescents' autonomy rights: The case for reproductive and voting rights (2024) · cites this paper as Icenogle et al., 2019
The Discussion (Limitations and Future Directions; page unavailable) says basic cognitive processes reach adult levels around age 16 and that adolescents’ decisions in deliberative contexts would, on average, be as logical as adults’. The Abstract identifies working memory as a cold-cognition skill, but it says future orientation continues to improve into adulthood; the Overview and Rationale also treats sensitivity to costs and rewards as part of psychosocial maturity. The source therefore does not establish adult-level ability by mid-adolescence across every skill listed, particularly anticipating consequences and weighing risks and benefits. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn contexts of reasoned decision making where peer pressure and opportunities for sensation seeking are minimized, adolescents' capacities for decision making are indistinguishable from adults at and before age 16.
“In contexts of reasoned decision making where peer pressure and opportunities for sensation seeking are minimized, adolescents’ capacities for decision making are indistinguishable from adults at and before age 16, the target age for most voting expansion initiatives (Icenogle et al., 2019; Steinberg et al., 2009).”
From The role (and limits) of developmental neuroscience in determining adolescents' autonomy rights: The case for reproductive and voting rights (2024) · cites this paper as Icenogle et al., 2019
The Discussion (Limitations and Future Directions; page not provided) says that cognitive processes supporting deliberative decisions reach adult levels around age 16 and that 16-year-olds’ decisions in such contexts would, on average, be as logical as adults’. The Results (Full Sample Age Trends; page not provided) report little change in cognitive capacity after 16, but do not establish that adolescents generally have adult-level capacity before that age. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAdolescents have demonstrated capacity to make deliberative decisions.
“adolescents have demonstrated capacity to make deliberative decisions (Icenogle et al., 2019; Reyna et al., 2015; Steinberg, 2013).”
From The role (and limits) of developmental neuroscience in determining adolescents' autonomy rights: The case for reproductive and voting rights (2024) · cites this paper as Icenogle et al., 2019
The Abstract says juveniles may be capable of deliberative decision-making by age 16, and the Discussion links this to cognitive capacity in situations that allow reflection. But the Discussion’s limitations state that the study did not directly test decision-making capacity, so saying adolescents have demonstrated that capacity overstates its evidence. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties.
Arnett, J. J. (2000) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.55.5.469 · Cited by 16,843 · see citing works
Diamond, A. (2013) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 · Cited by 13,268 · see citing works
Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context
Hofstede, G. (2011) · Online Readings in Psychology and Culture · doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1014 · Cited by 7,250 · see citing works
Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence
Dumont, R., Willis, J. O., Veizel, K., & Zibulsky, J. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118660584.ese2519 · Cited by 5,547 · see citing works
Specific impairments of planning
Shallice, T. (1982) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1982.0082 · Cited by 3,741 · see citing works
Age-related change in executive function: Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis
Huizinga, M., Dolan, C. V., & van der Molen, M. W. (2006) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.01.010 · Cited by 1,636 · see citing works
Age differences in resistance to peer influence.
Steinberg, L. D., & Monahan, K. C. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531 · Cited by 1,625 · see citing works
Self-citationSteinberg, L., Albert, D., Cauffman, E., Banich, M., Graham, S., & Woolard, J. (2008) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012955 · Cited by 1,542 · see citing works
Self-citationMaturation of Cognitive Processes From Late Childhood to Adulthood
Luna, B., Garver, K. E., Urban, T. A., Lazar, N. A., & Sweeney, J. A. (2004) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00745.x · Cited by 1,351 · see citing works
Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting
Steinberg, L., Graham, S., O’Brien, L., Woolard, J., Cauffman, E., & Banich, M. (2009) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01244.x · Cited by 1,237 · see citing works
Self-citationPeers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain’s reward circuitry
Chein, J., Albert, D., O’Brien, L., Uckert, K., & Steinberg, L. (2011) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01035.x · Cited by 1,180 · see citing works
Self-citationMatsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., & Fontaine, J. (2008) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022107311854 · Cited by 864 · see citing works
Beyond simple models of self-control to circuit-based accounts of adolescent behavior
Casey, B. J. (2015) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015156 · Cited by 742 · see citing works
Children's Social Competence in Cultural Context
Chen, X., & French, D. C. (2007) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093606 · Cited by 711 · see citing works
(2014) · Cited by 707 · see citing works
The Competency of Children and Adolescents to Make Informed Treatment Decisions
Weithorn, L. A., & Campbell, S. B. (1982) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130087 · Cited by 688 · see citing works
Figner, B., Mackinlay, R. J., Wilkening, F., & Weber, E. U. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0014983 · Cited by 625 · see citing works
Maturity of judgment in adolescence: Psychosocial factors in adolescent decision making.
Steinberg, L. D., & Cauffman, E. E. (1996) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf01499023 · Cited by 562 · see citing works
Self-citationSteinberg, L., Icenogle, G., Shulman, E. P., Breiner, K., Chein, J., Bacchini, D., Chang, L., Chaudhary, N., Giunta, L. D., Dodge, K. A., et al. (2018) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12532 · Cited by 514 · see citing works
Self-citationAge differences in affective decision making as indexed by performance on the Iowa gambling task
Cauffman, E., Shulman, E. P., Steinberg, L., Claus, E., Banich, M. T., Graham, S., & Woolard, J. (2010) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016128 · Cited by 488 · see citing works
Self-citationGrisso, T., Steinberg, L. D., Woolard, J. L., Cauffman, E. E., Scott, E. S., Graham, S., Lexcen, F., Reppucci, N. D., & Schwartz, R. (2003) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1023/a:1024065015717 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Self-citationDevelopment of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence
Prencipe, A., Kesek, A., Cohen, J., Lamm, C., Lewis, M. D., & Zelazo, P. D. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.008 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Age Patterns in Risk Taking Across the World
Duell, N., Steinberg, L., Icenogle, G., Chein, J., Chaudhary, N., Di Giunta, L., Dodge, K. A., Fanti, K. A., Lansford, J. E., Oburu, P., et al. (2018) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0752-y · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Springs of Action: Affective and Analytical Information Processing in Choice
Peters, E. M., & Slovic, P. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672002612002 · Cited by 353 · see citing works
Harden, K. P., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2011) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023279 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
Steinberg, L., Cauffman, E., Woolard, J., Graham, S., & Banich, M. (2009) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0014763 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Self-citationIRT studies of many groups: the alignment method
Muthén, B., & Asparouhov, T. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00978 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Effects of frontal lobe damage on interference effects in working memory
Thompson‐Schill, S. L., Jonides, J. J., Marshuetz, C. S., SMITH, E. E., D’Esposito, M., Kan, I. P., Knight, R. T., & Diane Swick, A. (2002) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.2.2.109 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Dampening or savoring positive emotions: A dialectical cultural script guides emotion regulation.
Miyamoto, Y., & Ma, X. (2011) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0025135 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Evaluating adolescent decision making in legal contexts.
Scott, E. S., Reppucci, N. D., & Woolard, J. L. (1995) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf01501658 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
When Is an Adolescent an Adult? Assessing Cognitive Control in Emotional and Nonemotional Contexts
Cohen, A. O., Breiner, K., Steinberg, L., Bonnie, R. J., Scott, E. S., Taylor-Thompson, K., Rudolph, M. D., Chein, J., Richeson, J. A., Heller, A. S., et al. (2016) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797615627625 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Self-citationRomer, D., Duckworth, A. L., Sznitman, S., & Park, S. (2010) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-010-0171-8 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Quinn, P. D., & Harden, K. P. (2013) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579412000284 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Three-month stability of delay and probability discounting measures.
Ohmura, Y., Takahashi, T., Kitamura, N., & Wehr, P. (2006) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/1064-1297.14.3.318 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Developing multiple language versions of instruments for intercultural research
Erkut, S. (2010) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00111.x · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Hein, I. M., de Vries, M. C., Troost, P. W., Meynen, G., van Goudoever, J. B., & Lindauer, R. (2015) · BMC Medical Ethics · doi:10.1186/s12910-015-0067-z · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Switching between spatial stimulus–response mappings: a developmental study of cognitive flexibility
Crone, E. A., Richard Ridderinkhof, K., Worm, M., Somsen, R. J. M., & Van Der Molen, M. W. (2004) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00365.x · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Theory of mind and executive function during middle childhood across cultures
Wang, Z., Devine, R. T., Wong, K. K., & Hughes, C. H. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.09.028 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
East–West cultural differences in context‐sensitivity are evident in early childhood
Imada, T., Carlson, S. M., & Itakura, S. (2012) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12016 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Scott, E. S., & Steinberg, L. D. (2009) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv103xdxp · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Self-citationWaiting for the Second Treat: Developing Culture-Specific Modes of Self-Regulation
Lamm, B., Keller, H., Teiser, J., Gudi-Mindermann, H., Yovsi, R. D., Freitag, C., Poloczek, S., Faßbender, I., Suhrke, J., Teubert, M., et al. (2017) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12847 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Thorell, L. B., Vidal, A. V., Siu, A. F. Y., & Mohammadi, H. (2012) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2012.727792 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
The Effect of Minimum Drinking Age Legislation on Youthful Auto Fatalities, 1970-1977
Cook, P. J., & Tauchen, G. E. (1984) · The Journal of Legal Studies · doi:10.1086/467738 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Interrogations, confessions, and guilty pleas among serious adolescent offenders.
Malloy, L. C., Shulman, E. P., & Cauffman, E. E. (2013) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1037/lhb0000065 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Shulman, E. P., Harden, K. P., Chein, J. M., & Steinberg, L. D. (2014) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12181 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Self-citationMa, X., Tamir, M., & Miyamoto, Y. (2017) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000315 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
To plead or not to plead: A comparison of juvenile and adult true and false plea decisions.
Redlich, A. D., & Shteynberg, R. V. (2016) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1037/lhb0000205 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Adolescent brain science and juvenile justice policymaking.
Steinberg, L. D. (2017) · Psychology Public Policy and Law · doi:10.1037/law0000128 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Self-citationPeer Influences on Adolescent Risk Behavior
Albert, D., & Steinberg, L. D. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1268-8_11 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citationViljoen, J. L., Zapf, P. A., & Roesch, R. G. (2007) · Behavioral Sciences & the Law · doi:10.1002/bsl.714 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Zottoli, T. M., Daftary‐Kapur, T., Winters, G. M., & Hogan, C. (2016) · Psychology Public Policy and Law · doi:10.1037/law0000095 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Parenting Attributions and Attitudes in Diverse Cultural Contexts: Introduction to the Special Issue
Lansford, J. E., & Bornstein, M. H. (2011) · Parenting · doi:10.1080/15295192.2011.585552 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Legal Construction of Adolescence
Scott, E. S. (2000) · eYLS (Yale Law School) · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Puberty Predicts Approach But Not Avoidance on the Iowa Gambling Task in a Multinational Sample
Icenogle, G., Steinberg, L. D., Olino, T. M., Shulman, E. P., Chein, J. M., Alampay, L. P., Al‐Hassan, S. M., Takash, H. M. S., Bacchini, D., Chang, L., et al. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12655 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationVazsonyi, A. T., & Ksinan, A. J. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.01.030 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Graduated licensing comes to the United States
Williams, A. F. (1999) · Injury Prevention · doi:10.1136/ip.5.2.133 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Constructing Tests of Cognitive Abilities for Schooled and Unschooled Children
Alcock, K., Holding, P., Mung’ala‐Odera, V., & Newton, C. R. J. C. (2008) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022108321176 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
A First Look at the Plea Deal Experiences of Juveniles Tried in Adult Court
Daftary‐Kapur, T., & Zottoli, T. M. (2014) · International Journal of Forensic Mental Health · doi:10.1080/14999013.2014.960983 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Age-related differences in working memory updating components
Linares, R., Bajo, M. T., & Pelegrina, S. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2016.02.009 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
LeCuyer, E. A., & Zhang, Y. (2014) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.12526 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Dünkel, F. (2014) · Kriminologijos studijos · doi:10.15388/crimlithuan.2014.1.3676 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The Cross-Cultural Generalizability of Zuckerman's Alternative Five-Factor Model of Personality
Rossier, J., Aluja, A., Garcı́a, L. F., Angleitner, A., Pascalis, V. D., Wang, W., Kuhlman, M. B., & Zuckerman, M. (2007) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223890701468618 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
(2016) · FLASH - Fordham Law Archive of Scholarship & History (Fordham University) · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Fischer, K. W., Stein, Z., & Heikkinen, K. (2009) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0017105 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The Legal Regulation of Adolescence
Woolard, J. L., & Scott, E. S. (2009) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470479193.adlpsy002011 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Steinberg, L. D., Cauffman, E. E., Woolard, J. L., Graham, S., & Banich, M. T. (2009) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0017246 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Davis SM, Scott ES, Wadlington W, & Whitebread CH (2009). Children in the legal system: Cases and materials (4th ed.). New York, NY: Foundation Press.
- Duckworth AL & Gross JJ (2014). Self-control and grit: Related but separable determinants of success. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 319– 325. doi: 10.1177/0963721414541462 26855479 PMC4737958 · DOI · Paper page
- Muthén LK, & Muthén BO (1998–2010). Mplus User’s Guide. Sixth Edition Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
- Preston CB & Crowther BT (2012). Infancy doctrine inquiries. Santa Clara Law Review, 52, 47– 80.
- Schiraldi V, Western B, & Bradner K (2015). Community-based responses to justice-involved young adults New Thinking in Community Corrections Bulletin. Washington: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Petersen, J. M., Zurita Ona, P., & Twohig, M. P. (2024) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2022.08.002 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Adolescent Brain Development and Progressive Legal Responsibility in the Latin American Context
Mercurio, E., García-López, E., Morales-Quintero, L. A., Llamas, N. E., Marinaro, J. Á., & Muñoz, J. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00627 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Healthy development as a human right: insights from developmental neuroscience for youth justice
Casey, B. J., Taylor-Thompson, K., Rubien-Thomas, E., Robbins, M., & Baskin-Sommers, A. (2020) · Annual Review of Law and Social Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101317-031101 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Maslowsky, J., Buss, E., & Wray-Lake, L. (2024) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101435 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…young people are comparable to adults in their ability to make deliberative decisions, including specific abilities in working memory, logical reasoning, weighing risks and benefits, and anticipating consequences of their actions (Icenogle et al., 2019; Reyna et al., 2015; Steinberg, 2013).”
- Authors
- Icenogle, G., Steinberg, L., Duell, N., Chein, J., Chang, L., Chaudhary, N., Di Giunta, L., Dodge, K. A., Fanti, K. A., Lansford, J. E., Oburu, P., Pastorelli, C., Skinner, A. T., Sorbring, E., Tapanya, S., Uribe Tirado, L. M., Alampay, L. P., Al-Hassan, S. M., Takash, H. M. S., & Bacchini, D.
- Affiliations
- Temple University (US)
- University of Macau (MO)
- University of Delhi (IN)
- Duke University (US)
- University of Cyprus (CY)
- Global TIES for Children (US)
- Sapienza University of Rome (IT)
- University West (SE)
- Chiang Mai University (TH)
- Ateneo de Manila University (PH)
- Hashemite University (JO)
- University of Naples Federico II (IT)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Law and Human Behavior
- Published
- 2019-02
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 69-85
- ISSN
- 0147-7307 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-661X
- PMC
- PMC6551607
- OpenAlex
- W2913731067
- Cited by
- 207
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 42 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 6
- FWCI
- 11.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Law and Human Behavior (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (RO1-HD054805)
- Klaus J. Jacobs Foundation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
- Keywords
- cognitive ability, psychosocial maturity, maturity gap, adolescent development, age of majority, self-control, impulsivity, cross-cultural comparison
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Psychology, Adolescent, Adult, Child, China, Cognition, Colombia, Cross-Sectional Studies, Cyprus, Decision Making, Female, Humans, India, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Philippines, Surveys and Questionnaires, Regression Analysis, Sweden, Thailand, United States, Age Distribution, Minors, Supreme Court Decisions, Adolescent Development, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
