The DOI matches its Crossref record; 99 of the 100 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 39 of the 95 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Learned helplessness at fifty: Insights from neuroscience.
Open accessAbstract
Learned helplessness, the failure to escape shock induced by uncontrollable aversive events, was discovered half a century ago. Seligman and Maier (1967) theorized that animals learned that outcomes were independent of their responses-that nothing they did mattered-and that this learning undermined trying to escape. The mechanism of learned helplessness is now very well-charted biologically, and the original theory got it backward. Passivity in response to shock is not learned. It is the default, unlearned response to prolonged aversive events and it is mediated by the serotonergic activity of the dorsal raphe nucleus, which in turn inhibits escape. This passivity can be overcome by learning control, with the activity of the medial prefrontal cortex, which subserves the detection of control leading to the automatic inhibition of the dorsal raphe nucleus. So animals learn that they can control aversive events, but the passive failure to learn to escape is an unlearned reaction to prolonged aversive stimulation. In addition, alterations of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex-dorsal raphe pathway can come to subserve the expectation of control. We speculate that default passivity and the compensating detection and expectation of control may have substantial implications for how to treat depression. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Claims the paper makes
101 Own interpretation · 20 Sources not found · 16 Supported · 16 Partly supported · 16 No full text of the sources · 15 No basis given · 8 Own result · 7 Not checked yet · 4 Own method · 3 Supported so far · 3 Not supported · accuracy not yet measured
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“Second, it is trans-situational and so inescapable shock in one situation blocks the passivity/anxiety caused by even stressors that do not involve shock in different situations.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Immunization and EXPECTation
What the sources say
- Disputedcites Amat et al. (2010) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports that prior escapable shock blocked the behavioral effects of later social defeat, a stressor involving no shock. It explicitly says yoked inescapable shock did not have this effect and slightly, though not significantly, exaggerated those effects. The claim reverses which initial shock condition was protective. (LLM, conf=0.95)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Social defeat involves a strong element of uncontrollability.
- Disputed
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“Moreover, perceived control in these pain studies increases ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity (Salomons, Johnstone, Backonja, & Davidson, 2004).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control
What the sources say
- Disputedcites Salomons, Johnstone, Backonja, & Davidson, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The fMRI section defines the reported contrast as uncontrollable minus controllable pain (UC − C). Table 1 lists prefrontal activation under that contrast, indicating greater activity with perceived uncontrollability, not an increase with perceived control. The paper does not identify a vmPFC increase. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Disputed
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“A number of studies employing painful stimuli have found that providing control, or inducing perceived control, reduces the experienced intensity of the painful stimulus.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control
What the sources say
- Disputedcites Salomons, Johnstone, Backonja, & Davidson, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Behavioral results report virtually identical pain ratings in the uncontrollable and controllable conditions (7.19 versus 7.20), with no significant difference. The Discussion says the neural-activity differences were not attributable to a difference in perceived pain. Thus, this study does not find that perceived control reduced experienced pain intensity. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Disputed
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“inescapable shock reduces later social investigation of a juvenile, a putative measure of anxiety”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Christianson, Paul, et al., 2008 source
The Discussion reports that inescapable shock (IS), but not escapable shock, reduced subsequent social exploration with a juvenile. It also says the procedure was sensitive to anxiogenic and anxiolytic drugs, supporting the interpretation of reduced exploration as a measure of anxiety. (LLM, conf=0.94)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“However, the mere presence of a juvenile leads to a large increase in 5-HT within the amygdala in a subject that has experienced inescapable shock, but not escapable shock previously”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Christianson et al., 2010 source
The Results section, “Extracellular BLA 5-HT during and following social exploration,” reports that a five-minute juvenile encounter increased extracellular 5-HT in the basolateral amygdala after inescapable shock, but not after escapable shock. The Discussion describes the increase after inescapable shock as large and sustained. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“So, the conclusion is that the dorsal raphe nucleus does not receive any heightened excitation from inescapable shock relative to escapable shock.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Learning: How and What does the Dorsal raphe nucleus Know?
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites McDevitt et al., 2009 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page not provided) says the dorsal raphe shows reduced activity during controllable stress and describes an inhibitory pathway activated under that condition. This supports inhibition during escapable shock as an explanation for the activity difference, but it does not establish that inescapable shock produces no greater excitatory input. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Grahn et al., 2002 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Weiss & Simson, 1988 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct electrophysiological measurement of projecting prelimbic neurons indicates that escapable shock, but not inescapable shock increases their excitability (Varela, Wang, Christianson, Maier, & Cooper, 2012).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Immunization and EXPECTation
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Varela, Wang, Christianson, Maier, & Cooper, 2012 source
The Introduction identifies the measured cells as prelimbic projection neurons and describes electrophysiological measurements after escapable or inescapable tail shock. The Discussion reports increased excitability after escapable shock and no observable change after inescapable shock. (LLM, conf=0.93)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Thus, stimulation of the infralimbic region should inhibit fear expression, and it does (Sierra-Mercado, Padilla-Coreano, & Quirk, 2011).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Amygdala
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Sierra-Mercado, Padilla-Coreano, & Quirk, 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (‘Fear expression: PL not IL’; page unavailable) suggests that IL helps inhibit fear responses during extinction. But the Results report inactivation, not stimulation: IL inactivation did not change freezing at the start of the session, though it impaired extinction. The paper therefore does not demonstrate that stimulating IL inhibits initial fear expression. (LLM, conf=0.83)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“the dorsal raphe nucleus receives virtually all of its cortical input from the prelimbic region (PL) of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) (Peyron, Petit, Rampon, Jouvet, & Luppi, 1997; Vertes, 2004).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Learning: The Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex does DETECT and EXPECT
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Peyron, Petit, Rampon, Jouvet, & Luppi, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Vertes, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Prelimbic cortex results (p. 8) report fairly dense PL innervation of the dorsal raphe nucleus. But the Infralimbic cortex results (p. 6) also report light-to-moderate innervation, and the paper does not establish that virtually all cortical input comes from PL. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Indeed, microinjection of 5-HT2C antagonists directly into these structures does block the passivity and increased anxiety (Christianson et al., 2010; Strong et al., 2011).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Dorsal raphe nucleus Activation is Necessary and Sufficient for Passivity/Anxiety
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Christianson et al., 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Intra-BLA 5-HT2C receptor antagonism; page unavailable) report that microinjecting the antagonist into the basolateral amygdala before testing reversed the anxiety-like reduction in social exploration after inescapable shock. The Discussion says that whether the basolateral amygdala is involved in the antagonist’s effect on shuttle-box escape deficits remains to be determined. This paper therefore does not support the claim that microinjection blocked passivity. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Partly supportedcites Strong et al., 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Results §3.4 (page not provided) reports that injecting a 5-HT2C antagonist into the basolateral amygdala before testing partially reduced the escape deficit after uncontrollable stress. It did not reduce exaggerated freezing, the paper’s measure of stress-induced fear. Results §3.2 likewise reports that dorsal-striatum injection improved escape behavior but not exaggerated fear, so this source does not support the claim that the injections blocked both passivity and increased anxiety. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
- It may state two separate claims as one. 80
- Probably not a substantial claim. 18
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Greenwood, Strong, and Fleshner (2010) have shown this to be the case. In their studies, manipulations that reduce fear conditioning reduce the shuttle escape deficit when the prior inescapable shocks were administered in the shuttlebox, but not when they were administered outside the shuttlebox.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Greenwood, Strong, and Fleshner (2010) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Inescapable shock, but not exactly equal escapable shock, desensitizes these receptors so that dorsal raphe nucleus5-HT neurons are sensitized for a number of days and to a remarkably large extent.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Rozeske et al., 2011 source
The Results (Experiment 1; page not provided) report impaired serotonin-mediated inhibition of dorsal raphe neurons 24 hours after inescapable shock, but not after escapable shock. The Introduction says inescapable shock sensitizes these neurons for 24–72 hours, with exaggerated subsequent serotonin release; the Discussion explains that reduced 5-HT1A receptor function would sensitize them. (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Of course, the desensitization of 5-HT1A receptors is not permanent, and recovers to normal within 3 days”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Rozeske et al., 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Results, Experiment 4 (page unavailable), show impaired 5-HT1A-receptor-mediated inhibition at 24 hours but no significant difference from controls at 7 days. The paper did not test receptor function at 3 days; its reference to effects lasting 24–72 hours concerns behavior, not measured receptor recovery. Thus, recovery by 3 days is not established. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“That is, activating the ventromedial prefrontal cortex-to-dorsal raphe nucleus pathway turned an animal without control into an animal with control.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Learning: The Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex does DETECT and EXPECT
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Amat, Paul, Watkins, and Maier (2008) source
The Discussion reports that activating mPFCv during inescapable shock blocked DRN activation and prevented subsequent escape-learning failure, reproducing the protective effects of behavioral control. The paper describes the mPFCv-to-DRN projection as the proposed mechanism; the citing sentence is a functional analogy, not a claim that the animal gained actual control. (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“First, inactivating the dorsal medial striatum did not interfere with the learning and performance of the escape response. This suggests that the rats could use the “dumber” habit system to acquire and perform the escape response.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Detection of control
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Amat et al. (2014) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Wheel-turn escape learning) report that rats given D-AP5 in the DMS learned and performed the escape response as efficiently as controls, and the Discussion suggests they did so through the habit system. But this finding concerns NMDA-receptor blockade during escapable shock, not DMS inactivation during both escapable and inescapable shock. The Experimental design section also says that a different DMS-inactivating drug, muscimol, prevented rats from learning to escape. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“As would be predicted, Amat et al. (2014) found that escapable shock, but not inescapable shock activates the contingency-sensitive dorsal medial striatum, but not the habit-oriented contingency-insensitive dorsal lateral striatum.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Detection of control
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Amat et al. (2014) source
The Results section (“Dorsomedial striatum Fos immunoreactivity”; page unavailable) reports a large Fos increase in the DMS after escapable shock but not inescapable shock. Neither condition produced a statistically significant group difference in the DLS, supporting the claimed contrast in activation, though the paper notes a small DLS increase after both conditions. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“One system, called the “act/outcome” system, is sensitive to the contingency between response and reinforcer.”
- Also stated in: § Detection of control · plain
“A second system, the “habit” system, is a mere habit that is not sensitive to contingency but only to the temporal pairing between response and reward, and it produces inflexible learning that is not sensitive to changes in the contingency of the reward (Balleine & Dickinson, 1998).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Detection of control
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Balleine & O'Doherty, 2010 source
The Contingency Degradation section says response–outcome (R–O) learning is sensitive to contingency rather than mere contiguity. It contrasts this with stimulus–response (S–R) learning, which it describes as contiguity-driven and insensitive to non-contiguous outcome delivery. The paper specifies that the relevant temporal pairing for S–R learning is between stimuli and responses. (LLM, conf=0.91)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Balleine & Dickinson, 1998 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Detection of control · plain
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“For example, Amat et al. (2010) reported that experience with escapable shock blocked the passivity in shuttle escape and also blocked the reduced social investigation (anxiety) produced by social defeat occurring seven days later.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Immunization and EXPECTation
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Amat et al. (2010) source
The Experimental Designs section specifies that social defeat occurred seven days after escapable shock. The Results sections on Escape learning and Social exploration report that prior escapable shock blocked both the shuttlebox escape deficit and the decrease in social investigation caused by social defeat. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Social defeat involves a strong element of uncontrollability.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Importantly, the act/outcome system involves a corticostriatal circuit consisting of the prelimbic area within the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the posterior dorsal medial striatum (DMS), while the”
- Also stated in: § Detection of control · plain
“habit system has no prefrontal cortical involvement, but instead involves the sensorimotor cortex and the dorsal lateral striatum (DLS).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Detection of control
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Balleine & O'Doherty, 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Neural Substrates of Goal-Directed Learning section identifies a rat prelimbic–dorsomedial striatal circuit for goal-directed learning, and the Figure 2 caption (Future Directions) links sensorimotor cortical inputs to dorsolateral striatum with habits. The paper describes rodent prelimbic cortex as analogous to human vmPFC, not as an area within it, and the cited passages do not specify the posterior dorsomedial striatum. (LLM, conf=0.83)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Detection of control · plain
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“As would be expected, social defeat also increased dorsal raphe nucleus 5-HT activity, and this increase was prevented by the prior escapable shock (Amat et al., 2010).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Immunization and EXPECTation
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Amat et al., 2010 source
The Results section on extracellular 5-HT in the caudal DRN reports that social defeat increased 5-HT efflux in rats. Its “Immunizing effect of ES” subsection states that prior escapable shock blocked that increase; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Dramatically, even though the escapable subjects performed the controlling escape response perfectly, this was not protective against passivity/anxiety later.”
- Also stated in: § Detection of control · plain
“That is, the dorsal raphe nucleus was activated as if the shocks were uncontrollable and passivity/anxiety followed.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Detection of control
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Amat et al. (2014) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Wheel-turn escape learning; Juvenile social exploration at 24 h after stress) show that rats given intra-DMS D-AP5 escaped as efficiently as controls but lost the usual protection against later anxiety-like behavior. The paper also reports loss of the usual suppression of dorsal raphe serotonin release. It blocked DMS NMDA receptors rather than fully inactivating the DMS, and it did not test later passivity or establish literally perfect escape performance. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Detection of control · plain
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Thus, lesion, NMDA receptor blockade, and inactivation of either the prelimbic area or the dorsal medial striatum prevents contingency sensitive act/outcome learning. Responses can be learned, but only the habit system is then used, and so the learning is insensitive to contingency (Shiflett & Balleine, 2011).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Detection of control
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Shiflett & Balleine, 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Striatal ERK signaling and instrumental learning” (page unavailable), the paper says that pDMS inactivation leaves rats capable of instrumental responding but makes their responses outcome-insensitive; it also reports that inhibiting glutamate receptors in the dorsal striatum interferes with action–outcome encoding. The References identify a study of NMDA-receptor blockade in the DMS. Our copy does not establish the claimed effects of prelimbic lesions or inactivation, or show that every listed intervention leaves only contingency-insensitive habit learning; its behavioral evidence here concerns sensitivity to outcome devaluation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The cells in this region are GABAergic and project to and inhibit the central nucleus of the amygdala (Berretta, Pantazopoulos, Caldera, Pantazopoulos, & Pare, 2005).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Amygdala
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Berretta, Pantazopoulos, Caldera, Pantazopoulos, & Pare, 2005 source
The Discussion states that intercalated neurons send a GABAergic projection to the central amygdala and generate feedforward inhibition in its neurons. The passage directly supports all three parts of the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“From there the information passes to the central nucleus of the amygdala, which in turns projects to the regions that control the behaviors and physiological responses that are the symptoms of fear (Davis, Rainnie, & Cassell, 1994; LeDoux, 2003; Maren & Quirk, 2004).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Amygdala
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Davis, Rainnie, & Cassell, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites LeDoux, 2003 source
- Supportedcites Maren & Quirk, 2004 source
The figure description in Conclusions states that the lateral amygdala projects to the central nucleus directly and via the basal amygdala, and that central-nucleus outputs to brainstem and hypothalamic structures trigger fear responses. The section on fear-related plasticity in the lateral amygdala also describes information relayed through basal amygdaloid nuclei to the central nucleus. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“It is straightforward to ask whether the protective effects of safety signals also requires the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and the answer is no.”
- Also stated in: § Hypothesis Testing · plain
“Instead, safety signals had their impact via the insular cortex and insular cortex lesions eliminated the protective effects of safety signals.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Christianson, Benison, et al., 2008 source
The Results (Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex Inhibition) report that inhibiting the vmPFC did not affect the safety signal’s protection against reduced social investigation after tail-shock. The Results (Sensory Insular Lesions and Safety Signals) report that sensory insular lesions completely blocked that protective effect. These findings concern the paper’s measured stress-buffering effect, not every possible effect of safety signals. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Hypothesis Testing · plain
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions eliminated the ability of behavioral control to blunt the passivity and fear caused by inescapable shock, but these lesions did not even reduce the passivity and fear blunting impact of safety signals (Christianson, Benison, et al., 2008).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Christianson, Benison, et al., 2008 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page not provided) says vmPFC inhibition with muscimol abolished behavioral control’s effects in prior work but had no effect on safety signals; the Results confirm the latter finding for social exploration after tail-shock. The claim overstates the evidence as vmPFC lesions affecting passivity and fear: this paper used temporary vmPFC inhibition and explicitly says it did not measure fear inhibition. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Importantly, there was one condition that selectively excited ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity – snake controllable trials. Control did not increase ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity on neutral fish trials, even though the subjects pressed. Ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity was higher on controllable snake trials than in any of the other conditions.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Kerr et al. (2012) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (fMRI activation results; page unavailable) report greater anticipatory vmPFC activation for controllable than uncontrollable snake trials, but no significant vmPFC difference between controllable and uncontrollable fish trials. They do not establish that vmPFC activity on controllable snake trials was higher than in every other individual condition; the reported snake-versus-fish vmPFC comparison collapses across controllability. (LLM, conf=0.84)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Thus, these behavioral changes should exist only as long as the receptors remain desensitized, which proved to be for only a few days (Rozeske et al., 2011).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Rozeske et al., 2011 source
Results, Experiment 4 (page unavailable), reports receptor desensitization at 24 hours after uncontrollable stress but not at seven days, and states that the associated behavioral effects are observed at 24–72 hours. The Abstract (page unavailable) likewise says desensitization was observed only at timepoints when the behavioral effects are present. This supports the citing sentence’s hedged inference, although the experiment did not pinpoint the exact day desensitization ended. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In primitive organisms threats engage defensive reflexes (Walters & Erickson, 1986).”
- Also stated in: § What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong? · hedged
“However, these reflexes are energy intensive, and so if unsuccessful it might be adaptive to inhibit them and conserve energy for use in physiological adjustments that promote survival, such as altering the responsivity of the immune system to be better able to fight any infection or wound that might occur after an attack (Frank, Watkins, & Maier, 2013).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Walters & Erickson, 1986 source
- Partly supportedcites Frank, Watkins, & Maier, 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction says that physically present threats produce defensive behaviors such as fleeing and fighting. It does not specify primitive organisms or defensive reflexes. Its discussion of energy costs concerns immune responses, not reflexes, and it does not say that unsuccessful reflexes are inhibited to conserve energy. (LLM, conf=0.78)
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong? · hedged
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“However, insular lesions did not reduce the passivity blunting effects of having an escape response, thereby demonstrating a double dissociation (Christianson, Benison, et al., 2008).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Christianson, Benison, et al., 2008 source
The Results section, “Sensory Insular Lesions and Behavioral Control” (page not provided), reports that escapable shock prevented the reduction in social exploration regardless of insular lesion treatment. The companion Results section, “Sensory Insular Lesions and Safety Signals” (page not provided), reports that the lesions completely blocked the safety signal’s protective effect, supporting the stated double dissociation. (LLM, conf=0.93)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The failure to escape produced by inescapable shock occurs for some number of days (see below for discussion of time course), but the elevation in 5-HT within regions such as the amygdala does not persist for this period of time.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“two-thirds of the animals from the INESC group failed to learn to escape, whereas 90% of the animals in both the ESC and 0 groups easily learned to escape.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Operationalizing Learned Helplessness
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Seligman & Maier, 1967 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This argument would suggest that in tasks in which the non-shocked control is not at ceiling a difference between the previously escapably shocked and non-shocked controls might emerge, and this appears to be the case (Baratta et al., 2007).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Baratta et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found that as the original theory claimed, organisms are sensitive to the dimension of control, and this dimension is critical.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong?
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Inescapable shock does not provide more excitatory input—both forms of shock produce equal excitation of the dorsal raphe nucleus.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the activation of a dorsal raphe nucleus 5-HT neuron can lead to the inhibition of its neighbors, and so dorsal raphe nucleus 5-HT activity is under self-restraint.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The most proximate mediator of fight/flight seemed to be the dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG), while the extended amygdala (bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, BNST, together with the amygdala proper) mediated fear/anxiety.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Passivity/Anxiety and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The intense activation of the dorsal raphe nucleus by shock sensitizes these neurons and this sensitization lasts for a few days and results in poor escape (passivity) and heightened anxiety.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Humans
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These neurons project to the dorsal raphe nucleus and inhibit the 5-HT cells that are activated by aversive stimulation, thus preventing dorsal raphe nucleus activation and thereby preventing sensitization of these cells, eliminating passivity and exaggerated fear.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Humans
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Abramson et al. (1978) claimed that inescapability itself was not sufficient to produce anything more than momentary helplessness. Rather, the explanations that subjects made of the causes of their helplessness predicted the time course and the extent of helplessness.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Humans
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So, inescapable shock is not being detected as uncontrollable, but it is being responded to as if it were controllable.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Humans
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The excitation of the dorsal raphe nucleus is necessary and sufficient for passivity and heightened fear”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Humans
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Receptors of the 5-HT1A subtype are expressed on the soma and dendrites of 5-HT cells within the dorsal raphe nucleus. These are inhibitory autoreceptors – 5-HT binding to these receptors inhibits 5-HT neuronal activity.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The dorsal raphe nucleus sends 5-HT projections to both the dorsal periaqueductal gray and to the amygdala, with 5-HT released in the dorsal periaqueductal gray inhibiting its function and 5-HT in the amygdala potentiating its function”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Graeff, Guimarães, De Andrade, & Deakin, 1996 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It would also have to be true that escapable shock does not activate the dorsal raphe nucleus.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
hedged- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The mechanism of learned helplessness is now very well-charted biologically and the original theory got it backwards.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Abstract
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“5-HT released in the periaqueductal gray and striatum acts at 5-HT receptors to inhibit active escape behavior, while 5-HT released in the amygdala acts at receptors to potentiate fear/anxiety.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Humans
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“if inescapable shock were to produce a powerful activation of the dorsal raphe nucleus 5-HT neurons and lead to the release of 5-HT in structures such as the amygdala and dorsal periaqueductal gray, then this structure would hold the potential to be a crucial node in any learned helplessness circuit.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“After the prelimbic-dorsal raphe nucleus ACT circuit is activated a set of changes that require several hours occurs in this pathway and involves the formation of new proteins related to plasticity.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Humans
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“most of the people from the yoked group failed to escape in the shuttlebox, whereas people from the escapable group and the zero group escaped well in the shuttlebox. Importantly the same pattern in the shuttlebox emerged when preceded by solvable and unsolvable anagrams”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Humans
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hiroto & Seligman, 1975 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The detection of uncontrollability is not necessary nor is it sufficient for passivity.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Humans
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“There is a structure—the dorsal raphe nucleus – that projects to both, inhibiting one and potentiating the other when it itself is activated.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“she was able to show that inescapable shock activated the neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus that contained 5-HT, and exactly equal escapable shock did not.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Serotonin (5-HT) and the Dorsal raphe nucleus
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Grahn et al. (1999)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“He and his colleagues showed that INESC depletes norepinephrine (NE) in the region of the locus coeruleus (LC)”
- Also stated in: § Animals · plain
“depletion of NE within this structure actually increases the activity of NE neurons, and Weiss had shown this to be important in the development of learned helplessness”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Operationalizing Learned Helplessness > Animals
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Weiss & Simson, 1988 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Animals · plain
In the paper
“Volpicelli, Ulm, Altenor, and Seligman (1983) using a triadic design found that the ESC group was much superior to the zero group and the INESC group. During later inescapable shock, the ESC group which had first learned to bar press to escape shock continued to run in a shuttlebox during long duration inescapable shock.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Operationalizing Learned Helplessness > Animals
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Volpicelli, Ulm, Altenor, and Seligman (1983) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Depressed people, who had not received inescapable events, behaved in the laboratory as if they had—showing passivity in the shuttlebox and giving up on cognitive problems”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Humans
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Klein, Fencil-Morse, & Seligman, 1976; Klein & Seligman, 1976; Miller & Seligman, 1976
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall learned helplessness by mapping into the symptoms of depression seemed like a plausible laboratory model.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Humans
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In sum, a number of inputs to the dorsal raphe nucleus, using a number of different transmitters, was necessary to produce learned helplessness behaviors, but these inputs did not discriminate inescapable from escapable shock.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Learning: The Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex does DETECT and EXPECT
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Inescapable shock potentiated later fear conditioning, a well-known phenomenon (Rau, DeCola, & Fenselow, 2005). It would not have been surprising if initial control merely prevented this potentiating effect, but it did more than that: Instead prior escapable shock actually retarded fear conditioning and facilitated fear extinction.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Amygdala
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rau, DeCola, & Fenselow, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Baratta et al. (2007)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“That is, inactivating the ventromedial prefrontal cortex-to-dorsal raphe nucleus pathway turned an animal with control into an animal without control.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Learning: The Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex does DETECT and EXPECT
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Amat et al. (2005)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the joint occurrence of shock and control might induce increased connectivity so that later just the presence of the shock, without control, is sufficient to activate the pathway.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Immunization and EXPECTation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: Plasticity typically occurs when neurons are activated together.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If inescapable shock produces a much greater activation of dorsal raphe nucleus 5-HT neurons than does escapable shock, but both provide equivalent excitatory input, then there is only one obvious possibility left—the presence of control must somehow inhibit dorsal raphe nucleus 5-HT neurons that would otherwise be activated by shock per se without regard to controllability.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Learning: The Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex does DETECT and EXPECT
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In sum, the prelimbic region of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is involved in two separable functions-the DETECTion of control in a circuit with the dorsal medial striatum and then ACTing to inhibit the dorsal raphe nucleus (see Figure 5).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Detection of control
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, this definition of instrumental contingency is identical to the definition of control that Maier and Seligman (1976) provided, although Maier and Seligman were referring to shock rather than food.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Detection of control
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maier and Seligman (1976) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“To test this idea Amat et al. (2006) activated this pathway directly by microinjecting a pharmacological agent with no actual escapable shock present, but this did not produce the persistent pathway change or produce immunization.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Immunization and EXPECTation
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Amat et al. (2006)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the dorsal raphe nucleus 5-HT neurons are under the inhibitory control of the prelimbic region of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and the detection of escapable shock activates this top-down inhibition of the dorsal raphe nucleus.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Learning: The Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex does DETECT and EXPECT
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“blockade of new protein synthesis in the prelimbic area after the escapable shock experience prevents immunization (Amat et al., 2006).”
- Also stated in: § Immunization and EXPECTation · plain
“Importantly, control still blunts the impact of the stressor being experienced, but longer-term immunization is eliminated”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Immunization and EXPECTation
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Amat et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Immunization and EXPECTation · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, DETECT escapability and ACT to pass this information that then inhibits the dorsal raphe nucleus are subserved by different populations of ventromedial prefrontal cortex cells and so are truly different functions.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Detection of control
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Notice that the top-down process from the prelimbic to the dorsal raphe nucleus captures the notion of EXPECTing that future bad events will be controllable.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Why Versus Whither
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, measuring a global ventromedial prefrontal cortex fMRI signal will not remotely imply activation of the control-related critical prelimbic neurons.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Speculations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there has to be a pathway from somewhere in the prelimbic-dorsomedial striatum circuit that projects to and activates the prelimbic neurons in the prelimbic- dorsal raphe nucleus pathway, and this pathway is as yet unknown.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong? > Unresolved Issues
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In their review of prospection research Gilbert and Wilson (2007) conclude “An extensive body shows that prefeeling depends critically on the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and that people with damage to this area find it difficult to predict the hedonic consequences of future events” (p. 1352).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Why Versus Whither
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gilbert and Wilson (2007) source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, the presence of control seems to be the active ingredient, leading to the inhibition of threat-induced changes in limbic and brainstem structures.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong?
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The prelimbic-dorsomedial striatum circuit detects control (DETECT) when control is present, and then activates the prelimbic-dorsal raphe nucleus pathway (ACT) to then blunt the behavioral effects of stress.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong? > Unresolved Issues
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, control cannot be reduced to safety.”
- Also stated in: § Hypothesis Testing · plain
“but only that stressor control and safety signals exert their effects via different neural mechanisms.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Hypothesis Testing · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even if there were a slight difference in 5-HT, the shuttle response is learned so rapidly that there is a ceiling effect.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, defensive behavior will be elicited. The aversive event would activate structures such as the dorsal raphe nucleus. This is a cumulative process with 5-HT building over time, and if the transmitter reaches some threshold in target structures, defensive behaviors become inhibited and energy flow is shifted.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong?
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“when shock is escapable this is DETECTed by the ventromedial prefrontal cortex-dorsal medial striatum circuit, and then the ventromedial prefrontal cortex ACTs, sending inputs to the dorsal raphe nucleus that inhibit it, thereby turning off the activation produced by shock per se.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As organisms became more complex, they could detect and identify threats at a distance. And so they developed rich behavioral and cognitive skills that could be used to cope with threats. Control became possible even against threats that persist over time.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong?
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the fact that in an aversive situation the brain seems to detect control as the active ingredient rather than a lack of control, does not mean that the brain cannot detect lack of control in other types of circumstances, such as uncontrollable food or unsolvable cognitive problems, or even loud noise.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong? > Unresolved Issues
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there is nothing in the brain that is selectively turned on by a lack of control, only something that turns things off when there is the presence of control.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It is important to note that 5-HT is phylogenetically very old (Hen, 1993).”
- Also stated in: § What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong? · plain
“Moreover, 5-HT has, from the beginning, been involved in controlling and shifting the balance and flow of energy (see Andrews, Bharwani, Lee, Fox, & Thomson, 2015, for review).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hen, 1993 source
- Not matchedcites Andrews, Bharwani, Lee, Fox, & Thomson, 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong? · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This circuit is about the future and it buffers against, but does not annihilate, the default reaction of the dorsal raphe nucleus.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Why Versus Whither
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, we would expect that control would not modulate the HPA axis response to stress because the paraventricular nucleus is not informed about controllability by the ACT circuit.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“aversive events per se (either controllable or uncontrollable) excite the dorsal raphe nucleus, but control over stress actively turns this off.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that the rat EXPECTs that shock will be escapable in the new situation and that plasticity in the prelimbic-dorsal raphe nucleus subserves this expectation and inhibits the dorsal raphe nucleus, thus blocking learned helplessness.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal as a tool of therapy is behavioral control. It blunts the impact of a negative event, and likely involves top-down inhibition from the ventro to lower structures.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Speculations
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The basic result was that the subjects without control later revealed passivity and a number of other behavioral changes, while those with control did not and appeared to be similar to non-shocked controls.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The default reaction to past and present bad events may be concurrent passivity and heightened anxiety. These cannot be undone directly or annihilated. They can, however, be inhibited by top-down cortical, control.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Why Versus Whither
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The second is that top-down higher cortical processes from the ventromedial prefrontal cortex inhibit this default response.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Speculations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it was difficult to separate these two possibilities with behavioral experiments, and the idea that uncontrollability was learned remained the dominant view.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and have suggested that this occurs because that experience induces plasticity in ventromedial prefrontal cortex neurons that project to midbrain and brainstem stress-responsive structures, leading to their later inhibition.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Speculations
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The passivity occurs because excessive 5-HT is released in projection regions of the dorsal raphe nucleus, and this occurs because dorsal raphe nucleus 5-HT neurons have become sensitized due to the desensitization of 5-HT1A receptors on the soma and dendrites of these cells.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Neurobiology of Human Control > Hypothesis Testing
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For complex organisms behavioral control can be possible over threats that are repeated, intermittent, and so persist across time. Thus, conservation/withdrawal and other energy adjustments set in motion by the continuation of threat should be inhibited.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong?
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first is that the default response of higher organisms to prolonged bad events seems to be passivity and heightened anxiety and that this is caused by the activation of the dorsal raphe nucleus.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Speculations
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The passivity and heightened anxiety symptoms of learned helplessness map quite well into symptoms of depression (Seligman 1975; Weiss, Simson, Ambrose, Webster, & Hoffman, 1985) and perhaps those of posttraumatic stress disorder (LoLordo & Overmier, 2011).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Speculations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Seligman 1975
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Weiss, Simson, Ambrose, Webster, & Hoffman, 1985
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites LoLordo & Overmier, 2011 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Learned helplessness serves as a model for the human phenomena discussed, including depression and possibly PTSD.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the existing neural evidence although strong, it is not conclusive.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong? > Unresolved Issues
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather, it may be that this processing can occur, but is not deployed in situations that are highly aversive such as the original helplessness experiments.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > What Did Original Learned Helplessness Theory Get Right and What Did It Get Wrong? > Unresolved Issues
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“We are mindful that in the theory of explanatory style, “hope” consists largely in the habit of expecting that future bad events will not be permanent, global, and uncontrollable, rather they will be temporary, local and controllable (Seligman, 1991, pp. 48-49).”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Why Versus Whither
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Seligman, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed much of cognitive behavioral therapy is actually future–oriented, even if it is not taught in this way.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Why Versus Whither
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such expectations are likely the best natural defense against helplessness”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > Why Versus Whither
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Uncontrollability is the active ingredient that produces passivity, and escapably shocked subjects were later normal because they lacked this critical learning ingredient.
“we assumed that uncontrollability is the active ingredient in producing passivity, and that escapable subjects were later normal because they lacked this critical learning ingredient.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The dorsal raphe nucleus does not receive somatomotor or somatosensory inputs that would tell it whether motor responses occurred or whether shock is present.
“but the dorsal raphe nucleus does not receive these types of somatomotor and somatosensory inputs.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Electrical stimulation of prelimbic neurons that descend to the dorsal raphe nucleus inhibits dorsal raphe nucleus neuronal activity.
“Importantly, electrical stimulation of the neurons that descend from the prelimbic area to the dorsal raphe nucleus inhibits dorsal raphe nucleus neuronal activity.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Descending prelimbic neurons are glutamatergic and excitatory but preferentially synapse on GABAergic interneurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus that inhibit 5-HT cells.
“Although these descending neurons are glutamatergic and so excitatory, they synapse preferentially on GABAergic interneurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus that inhibit the 5-HT cells”
The paper relies on this without support.
The dorsal raphe nucleus is a site of convergence that sums inputs from multiple structures activated by shock.
“The dorsal raphe nucleus is a site of convergence that sums inputs from a number of structures themselves activated by shock (Figure 3).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Plasticity typically occurs when neurons are activated together.
“Plasticity, or increased connectivity between neurons at a synapse, typically occurs when both are activated together, as they say, “neurons that fire together wire together”.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Social defeat involves a strong element of uncontrollability.
“The experimental subject inevitably loses and adopts defeat postures, and so there is a strong element of uncontrollability.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Learned helplessness serves as a model for the human phenomena discussed, including depression and possibly PTSD.
“Assuming that learned helplessness models these phenomena, we now speculate on the implications of the neural circuitry”
The paper relies on this without support.
5-HT accumulates gradually across trials in response to aversive stimulation.
“5-HT in response to aversive stimulation accumulates gradually across trials”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“It is important to record from DRN because its activity has been linked to control, albeit especially in a series of studies that focused on aversive learning and the sense of helplessness that ensued when aversive events were uncontrollable.19”
From Two prefrontal-subcortical circuits estimate controllability and reflect its impact on learning (2026) · cites this paper as [19]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Immunization and EXPECTation
“Second, it is trans-situational and so inescapable shock in one situation blocks the passivity/anxiety caused by even stressors that do not involve shock in different situations.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Immunization and EXPECTation
“Initial exposure to escapable shock prevents or reduces the passivity/anxiety induced by later inescapable shock, a phenomenon we called immunization (Maier et al., 1969).”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Immunization and EXPECTation
“Second, it is trans-situational and so inescapable shock in one situation blocks the passivity/anxiety caused by even stressors that do not involve shock in different situations.”
§ Learned Helplessness at Fifty: Insights from Neuroscience > The Neural Circuitry of Learned Helplessness > Immunization and EXPECTation
“For example, Amat et al. (2010) reported that experience with escapable shock blocked the passivity in shuttle escape and also blocked the reduced social investigation (anxiety) produced by social defeat occurring seven days later.”
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“In the " attributional reformulation " of learned helplessness, Abramson et al. (1978) claimed that inescapability itself was not sufficient to produce anything more than momentary helplessness.”
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Seligman, M. E. P. (1975) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 6,181
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“…hypothesis against a variety of alternative ideas that were developed to explain why the experience of INESC leads to later failure to learn to escape in a different environment and whether control/ lack of control is the critical underlying dimension (summarized in Maier & Seligman, 1976).”
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BackgroundFailure to escape traumatic shock.
Seligman, M. E., & Maier, S. F. (1967) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0024514 · Cited by 1,981 · cited 1×
“So in the original stressor controllability experiment (Seligman & Maier, 1967), this group of dogs learned in the hammock to press a panel with their noses to turn off each shock.”
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LeDoux, J. (2003) · Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1023/a:1025048802629 · Cited by 1,818 · cited 1×
“From there the information passes to the central nucleus of the amygdala, which in turns projects to the regions that control the behaviors and physiological responses that are the symptoms of fear (Davis, Rainnie, & Cassell, 1994; LeDoux, 2003; Maren & Quirk, 2004).”
BackgroundBalleine, B. W., & O'Doherty, J. P. (2010) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2009.131 · Cited by 1,775 · cited 1×
“Neuroscience research indicates that each can take place and each involves different neural systems (Balleine & O'Doherty, 2010).”
Background
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 889
Connolly, M. G., Johnson, Z. V., Chu, L., Johnson, N. D., Buhr, T. J., McNeill, E. M., Clark, P., & Rhodes, J. S. (2025) · Genes Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.70019 · Cited by 3
Chen, B., & Shi, Z. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-15491-x · Cited by 3
“Interpreted through social role theory 80 these findings reflect gender-specific socialization processes in which women typically develop greater sensitivity to interpersonal relationships and group dynamics, while men prioritize achievement and individual outcomes 20 .”
Ang, Y., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2018.12.004 · Cited by 3
“Obtaining greater clarity on this concept has important clinical implications because converging research suggests that personal control is important for modulating the affective and behavioral responses to stress—a pivotal factor in the development, expression, and exacerbation of depression [for review, see Maier an…”
BackgroundImpacts of colder and hotter climates on richer and poorer people’s daily functioning
de Vliert, E. V., & Joshanloo, M. (2020) · Climate Research · doi:10.3354/cr01624 · Cited by 3
Outcome unpredictability affects outcome-specific motivation to learn
Hartanto, G., Livesey, E. J., Griffiths, O., Lachnit, H., & Thorwart, A. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-021-01932-x · Cited by 4
“Furthermore, it confirms the similarities with the demotivation caused by the LH effect (Maier & Seligman, 2016).”
BackgroundLocke, E. A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0003 · Cited by 8
Nagengast, B., & Trautwein, U. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0068 · Cited by 4
How loss of social status affects the brain
Harris, A. Z., & Padilla-Coreano, N. (2023) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-023-00602-3 · Cited by 3
Plunkett, S. W., Hinojosa, G. A., Reyes, O. A., & Katz, G. S. (2023) · Journal of College Student Mental Health · doi:10.1080/87568225.2023.2198153 · Cited by 3
“Substantial research has found a link between the perceived inability to manage or control stressful events and depression (Abramson et al., 1978; Maier & Seligman, 2016).”
Zhang, J., Li, W., Liao, T., Li, M., Yao, X., Zhang, Y., Zhang, B., Zhang, J., Jiang, X. C., Wang, K., et al. (2023) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148481 · Cited by 3
Perceived Usefulness of Self-Guided Versus Collaborative Suicide Safety Plans in Online Help-Seekers
Rainbow, C., Tatnell, R., Blashki, G. A., & Melvin, G. A. (2024) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000940 · Cited by 3
Predicting depression based on dimensions of social-emotional competence among gifted students
Ghasemi, M.-M., Seif, D., & Pirzadi, H. (2023) · Research and Development in Medical Education · doi:10.34172/rdme.2023.33141 · Cited by 4
Brain encoding during perceived control as a prospective predictor of improvement in quality of life
Dan, R., Brown, A. R., Hutson, L. M., Belleau, E. L., Esfand, S. M., Ruberto, V. L., Johns, E., Null, K. E., Du, F., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2024) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsae075 · Cited by 3
“Controllability was suggested to shape our decisions in several ways, including boosting approach behavior (Bobadilla-Suarez et al. 2017), motivating us to exert effort (White 1959), and reducing maladaptive responses in aversive environments (Maier and Seligman 2016).”
BackgroundFallahinia, N., Malakouti, S. K., Khosrowabadi, R., Rasouli, N., Moradkhanie, S., Mahjoubnavaz, F., & Bayat, M. (2024) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2024.111912 · Cited by 3
Tomasulo, D. (2018) · The Journal of Psychodrama Sociometry and Group Psychotherapy · doi:10.12926/18-00016.1 · Cited by 3
“The latest research by Maier and Seligman (2016) revisited the original work on learned helplessness.”
Storace, A., Daniels, S., Zhou, Y., Kalisch, B. E., Parker, L. A., Rock, E. M., Limebeer, C. L., Lapointe, T., & Leri, F. (2019) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112174 · Cited by 5
Cognitions and Emotions Energize and Sustain Motivation
Schunk, D. H. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0037 · Cited by 6
Hypokognition der Emotion aus neurowissenschaftlicher Perspektive
Markowitsch, H. J. (2023) · Dietrich Reimer Verlag eBooks · doi:10.5771/9783496030874-115 · Cited by 3
Kent, M., Mardian, A. S., Hustead, M. L.-R., Gress‐Smith, J. L., Ciciolla, L. M., Kim, J. L., & Scott, B. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.613341 · Cited by 5
Byrka, K., Cantarero, K., Doliński, D., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13105716 · Cited by 5
“A prototypical study showed that individuals give up and fall into resignation or withdrawal when they see no relations between actions and their outcome [6].”
BackgroundBehavioral studies of spinal conditioning: The spinal cord is smarter than you think it is.
Grau, J. W., Hudson, K. E., Tarbet, M. M., & Strain, M. M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Learning and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xan0000332 · Cited by 3
Collet‐Sabé, J., Garcia‐Molsosa, M., Clarke, M., et al. (2022) · Education Policy Analysis Archives · doi:10.14507/epaa.30.7210 · Cited by 3
“Based on former research (Abramson et al., 1978; Hassard et al., 2017; Maier & Seligman, 1976, 2016; Peterson, 1985; Qutaiba, 2011; Saxena & Shah, 2008, among others), we understand learned helplessness as a process in which people are repeatedly exposed to situations beyond their control.”
BackgroundMethodAssessing Motivation Dynamically
Schunk, D. H. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0074 · Cited by 4
Is Academic Motivation a Tree Trunk, a Fan, a Wall, a Rope, a Snake, or a Spear?
Skinner, E. A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0061 · Cited by 4
Relationship Between Non-Cognitive Skills And GPA In A Rural Maine Community College
Martin, R. A. (2019) · DUNE - DigitalUNE (University of New England) · Cited by 2
Ketamine restores escape behavior by re-engaging dopamine systems to drive cortical spinogenesisPreprint
Wu, M., Minkowicz, S., Dumrongprechachan, V., Hamilton, P. J., Xiao, L., & Kozorovitskiy, Y. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.03.11.987818 · Cited by 3
A Decision Architecture for Safety ComputationsPreprint
Tashjian, S. M., Zbozinek, T. D., & Mobbs, D. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4s8zb · Cited by 3
“The presence of control reverses this inhibition so that active safety-oriented behaviors can continue[64].”
BackgroundActive Inference of Interpersonal Trust Within and Across Mental DisordersPreprint
Eckert, A.-L., Pawlowski, J., Rief, W., Endres, D., & Kirchner, L. (2023) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/8aexf · Cited by 2
Georgescu, R. I., & Bodislav, D. A. (2025) · Encyclopedia · doi:10.3390/encyclopedia5020060 · Cited by 3
“With time, this reduced activity can lead to apathy, depression, and a decreased ability to pursue or follow goals [29,30].”
Linnenbrink‐Garcia, L. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0065 · Cited by 3
Oral CBD-rich hemp extract modulates sterile inflammation in female and male rats
Hopkins, S., Kelley, T., Roller, R., Thompson, R. S., Colagiovanni, D. B., Chupka, K., & Fleshner, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2023.1112906 · Cited by 2
“For example, exposure to IS increases anxiety, disturbs sleep, diurnal rhythms, and the gut microbiota, and suppresses the generation of in vivo antibody responses to a benign protein (Maier, 1984; Fleshner et al., 1995a; Fleshner et al., 1996; Greenwood et al., 2005; Fleshner, 2011; Helmreich et al., 2012; Thompson e…”
BackgroundA Systems Perspective on the Development of Coping
Skinner, E. A., & Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J. (2023) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108917230.002 · Cited by 5
Ferrari, C., Lewon, M., & Falletta‐Cowden, N. (2024) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2024.2352471 · Cited by 2
“…events, especially chronic exposure to these types of events during key developmental periods, can have profound and in some cases lifelong effects on learning and behavior (Maier & Seligman, 1976, 2016; Mineka & Kihlstrom, 1978; Prather & Golden, 2009; Rajaraman et al., 2022; Seligman, 1971).”
The Next Generation of Personalized Educational AI: Integrating Emotion and Cognition
Lazic, M., Woodruff, E., & Jun, J. (2025) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-82915-4_4 · Cited by 2
Flowing with the Current and Making Waves: A Model of Personal Control and Institutional Migration
Lee, M., & Whitson, J. (2025) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2022.0246 · Cited by 3
Wang, J., Bley, V., Jiang, J., Zhang, Y., Qin, Y., Feng, H., Liu, Y., Li, R., Wang, C., He, S., et al. (2025) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2025.110569 · Cited by 3
Collective learned helplessness: a conceptional framework
Uzbay, T. I., & Erdoğan, B. (2025) · Theory and Society · doi:10.1007/s11186-025-09648-w · Cited by 2
“A recent approach to learned helplessness suggests that passivity may be the organism’s default state, with a sense of control learned through experience (Maier & Seligman, 2016).”
Semeão, K. A., Dutra-Tavares, A. C., Ribeiro‐Carvalho, A., Isnardo-Fernandes, J., Lopes, L. D., de Souza, G. S. M., Nunes‐Freitas, A. L., Silva, B. S. D., Filgueiras, C. C., Manhães, A. C., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26199329 · Cited by 2
“It plays critical roles in the regulation of the sleep–wake cycle and arousal, reward and aversion processing, hedonic responses, expression of learned helplessness, as well as the modulation of mood and cognition [55–57].”
Yesuf, S. A. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-23825-7 · Cited by 3
“Furthermore, our findings align with the learned helplessness theory, which postulates that functional decline can foster feelings of loss of control and helplessness, particularly in retirement when individuals lose the structure and purpose previously provided by work [55].”
Cheng, Q., Liu, W., Li, Y., Xu, S., Wei, C., Zheng, Q., Wu, M., Han, J., Liu, Z., Ren, W., et al. (2025) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2509072122 · Cited by 2
“For instance, repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive stimuli lead to failure to escape controllable aversive stimuli, which is referred to as learned helplessness ( 3 ).”
Nielsen, M. B., Rosander, M., Trépanier, S., Finne, L. B., & Einarsen, S. V. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08687-x · Cited by 3
“In such cases, a sense of fatalism and resignation may emerge, leading the individual to believe that there is no point in trying to improve the situation (Maier & Seligman, 2016).”
Forster, A., Rodrigues, J., Sperlich, B., & Hewig, J. S. (2026) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.70217 · Cited by 3
“…leads to the establishment of a certain style of attribution (internal, global, and stable attribution of this incongruence), which in turn induces a reduction of effort, thereby entering a vicious cycle of overly passive behavior, negative thought, and affect (Maier and Seligman 2016).”
Tao, X., Guo, F., Wang, L. Y., et al. (2026) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-026-07350-9 · Cited by 2
Art & Science in the Choral Rehearsal
Paul, S. J. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190863760.001.0001 · Cited by 2
Økende antall unge uføre med psykiske lidelser: en systemfeil eller en generasjonssvakhet?
Lunde, C. (2021) · Søkelys på arbeidslivet · doi:10.18261/issn.1504-7989-2021-01-05 · Cited by 2
“I sin forskning knytter han depresjon til en erfaring av manglende autonomi og innflytelse over egen livssituasjon (Maier & Seligman 2016).”
BackgroundBouton, M. E., & Boakes, R. A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108290876.007 · Cited by 2
How We Learn Helplessness from (and Actively Cope with) Institutionalized Racism
Fogler, J., Perrin, H. T., & Loe, I. M. (2022) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001084 · Cited by 2
Controlling Your Own Motivation Is an Acquired Skill
Wolters, C. A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0033 · Cited by 2
How Does Context Shape Motivation?
Bong, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0044 · Cited by 2
How Do We Motivate People? By Working with Their Self-Beliefs
Usher, E. L. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0054 · Cited by 7
Kim, S. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0008 · Cited by 2
Vansteenkiste, M., & Soenens, B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0021 · Cited by 4
Grolnick, W. S. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0026 · Cited by 4
Sedlinská, T., Bolte, L., Melsæter, E., Mittner, M., & Csifcsák, G. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1164208 · Cited by 2
“This may result in behavior resembling learned helplessness (LH) (15).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialCooperative Care Does Not Scare – Use of Cooperative Care Training in Routine Husbandry in Dogs
Sydänheimo, A., Freeman, M. S., & Hunt, K. A. (2023) · Animal Behaviour and Welfare Cases · doi:10.1079/abwcases.2023.0010 · Cited by 2
Kutlu, Ö., & Ozyeter, N. T. (2023) · Yuzunci Yil Universitesi Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi · doi:10.33711/yyuefd.1247438 · Cited by 1
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“Indeed, passive and active coping are both adaptive responses to stress, but dysfunctional adaptation can push these responses to extreme, pathological, levels (Douma and de Kloet, 2020; de Kloet and Molendijk, 2016; Cabib et al., 2012; Campus et al., 2016; Forgeard et al., 2011; Maier and Seligman, 2016).”
BackgroundEtiopathogenesis of depression and experimental depression models used in preclinical studies
Kandemir, Ü. (2023) · European Journal of Life Sciences · doi:10.55971/ejls.1327521 · Cited by 2
“The “learned helplessness” model is one of the oldest models used to explore the consequences of uncontrollable stress in animals [63-65].”
Thriving In and Out of the Reading Room: A Faculty Development Workshop
May, B. J., Dodelzon, K., Katzen, J. T., Lamparello, N. A., Legasto, A. C., Chatterji, M., Lo, G. C., de Leon, M. J., Schweitzer, A. D., & Min, R. J. (2023) · Academic Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.acra.2023.09.016 · Cited by 3
Kaeppler, A. K., Erath, S. A., Hinnant, J. B., & El-Sheikh, M. (2023) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-023-01135-z · Cited by 2
“…and motivational state that can occur after repeated exposure to a stressful situation or stimulus, when a person comes to believe that the stressor is uncontrollable or unavoidable and that the outcomes of the stressful situation are independent of their behavior (Maier & Seligman, 2016).”
Kolu, T. C. (2023) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-023-00876-z · Cited by 3
“…action is documented to exert effects that mitigate the risk of, and in some cases prevent, the biological damage caused by cumulative exposure to prolonged, inescapable, and distressing aversive and adverse experiences (e.g., Maier & Seligman, 2016; McEwen, 2000, 2004, 2005; Slopen et al., 2014).”
Fokus Grundschule Band 3. Kooperationsfeld Grundschule
Graz, G. G. 2., Holzinger, A., Pichler, S., & Luttenberger, S. C. 2. /. J. (2024) · Waxmann Verlag GmbH eBooks · doi:10.31244/9783830998198 · Cited by 2
Resource-rational psychopathology.
Bari, B. A., & Gershman, S. J. (2024) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/bne0000600 · Cited by 4
“There is a long and rich literature on learned helplessness in depression (Maier & Seligman, 1976, 2016), and rational inattention provides another perspective: if the attentional incentive is decreased or erased, rational agents should not allocate attention to the task at hand, as attention is…”
BackgroundKolano, J., Menon, D. K., & Peper, M. (2024) · Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie · doi:10.1024/1016-264x/a000392 · Cited by 2
Jeong, H., Kim, I., Kim, S. H., Lee, J.-B., & Kim, H. (2024) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina60081259 · Cited by 2
“Helplessness is considered to be associated with clinical depression, particularly in relation to the well-known theory of ‘learned helplessness’, which suggests that persistent learned helplessness can lead to depression [45].”
BackgroundKoolschijn, R. S., Polner, B., Hoomans, J. M., Cools, R., Vassena, E., & den Ouden, H. E. M. (2024) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2024.101453 · Cited by 5
“The well-documented role of serotonin in the phenomenon of learned helplessness suggests that serotonin may indeed play a role in signalling environmental controllability [64–66].”
Backgroundde Miranda, A. S., Toscano, E. C. D. B., Venna, V. R., Graeff, F. G., & Teixeira, A. L. (2025) · Expert Opinion on Drug Discovery · doi:10.1080/17460441.2025.2460674 · Cited by 3
“These models also induce neurobiological changes found in MDD, such as reduced serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmission, decreased neurotrophin levels, neuroinflammation, and hyperactivation of the hypothalamus pituitary – adrenal (HPA) axis [28–31].”
Schepers, M., Lagerweij, P., Geurts, D. E. M., Krause, F., den Ouden, H. E. M., Cools, R., Speckens, A. E. M., & Collin, G. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-06430-7 · Cited by 5
“Learned helplessness has been associated with psycho-pathology and is known to be enhanced in depression and anxiety disorders [66, 67].”
A task-invariant prior explains trial-by-trial active avoidance behaviour across gain and loss tasks
Granwald, T., Dayan, P., Lengyel, M., & Guitart‐Masip, M. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00254-1 · Cited by 4
Stoicism or Defeat? The Psychological Impact of the Kiln Environment on Working Donkeys and Mules
Taylor, K., Harrison, A., & Capaldo, T. (2025) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani15111525 · Cited by 2
“In a review of the theory 50 years later, Maier and Seligman [19] admitted that they had got it backwards.”
Blunted perceived control effect on reward anticipation in trait anxiety
Liang, Y., An, P., Liu, G., & Zheng, Y. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.119559 · Cited by 4
Stupnisky, R. H., & Salahuddin, M. (2025) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-025-01546-5 · Cited by 7
“The worst scenario is that some of these amotivated faculty may be in a state of learned helplessness (Maier & Seligman, 2016), as such, more individualized interventions such as mentorship may be needed.”
Active disambiguation guides inferring controllability and cause in social interactions
Spiering, L., Trier, H. A., O’Reilly, J. X., Kolling, N., Wittmann, M. K., Rushworth, M. F. S., & Scholl, J. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-67853-8 · Cited by 2
Burnout and mental health of physicians
Ha, J. H. (2019) · Journal of Korean Medical Association · doi:10.5124/jkma.2019.62.7.346 · Cited by 2
Dudzinski, K. M., Hill, H. M. M., Zaccaroni, A., Makecha, R. N., Lilley, M. K., Almunia, J., Frick, E. E., Feucht, T., Stafford, G., & Abramson, C. I. (2020) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/ijcp.2020.33.00.01 · Cited by 2
Why Do People Have Painful Feelings? An Evolutionary Tale of Misery and Woe
Andrews, P. W. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-38877-5_16 · Cited by 2
Valerio, A. K. S., Pérez-Vielma, N. M., Miliar-García, Á., Gómez‐López, M., García-García, C., & Aguilera-Sosa, V. R. (2020) · Acta de Investigación Psicológica · doi:10.22201/fpsi.20074719e.2020.3.361 · Cited by 2
Boyer, C., & Bissonnette, S. (2021) · Enfance en difficulté · doi:10.7202/1075508ar · Cited by 2
Die homöopathische Behandlung von Depressionen
Koch, U. (2021) · Allgemeine Homöopathische Zeitung · doi:10.1055/a-1650-5046 · Cited by 2
Using a cognitive framework with nurses to manage stress
Williams, A., & Williams, N. J. (2022) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.13763 · Cited by 2
Two Routes to the Self-Regulation of Motivation and Goals
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Bargh, J. A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0031 · Cited by 2
Motivation Is the Interaction Between Dispositions and Context
Stipek, D. J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0005 · Cited by 4
Creating a Motivating Learning Environment
Alexander, P. A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0050 · Cited by 2
The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Motivation
Ntoumanis, N. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0020 · Cited by 3
The Most Fundamental Limitation in Motivation Theory and Research Is Our Theories
Anderman, E. M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0066 · Cited by 3
Most Motivation Research in Education Is Not Yet Useful for Teachers
Patrick, H. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0064 · Cited by 7
Gray, D. L., & Harris-Thomas, B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0076 · Cited by 2
Competition Can Enhance Motivation—But Typically Undermines It
Reeve, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0028 · Cited by 6
Sosyal Hizmet Öğrencilerinin İyimserlik Eğilimleri ve Yaşam Doyumu İlişkisi
Pak, M., Gök, F. A., & Özmete, E. (2023) · Toplum ve sosyal hizmet(Online)/Toplum ve sosyal hizmet · doi:10.33417/tsh.1152491 · Cited by 2
Medikalisierung am Ende des Lebens
Schurig, N., & Warnke, A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-40507-6_5 · Cited by 2
Opening Up Alternatives for Managers Stuck with Complexity
Wright, R. P. (2023) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s2397-521020230000006002 · Cited by 2
Gabay, P. J. V., Alejo, R. S., Bayudan, L. G., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology (IJISRT) · doi:10.38124/ijisrt/ijisrt24mar153 · Cited by 2
Nursing Staff Perceptions of Fall Risk
Gibson, T. L., & Lloyd, S. (2017) · JONA The Journal of Nursing Administration · doi:10.1097/nna.0000000000000562 · Cited by 2
Neuroethics in the Shadow of a Pandemic
Roskies, A. L., & Walton, A. E. (2020) · AJOB Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/21507740.2020.1778130 · Cited by 2
“Loss of control, and the feelings of anxiety it provokes, lead to an upsurge in stress hormones (Maier and Seligman 2016).”
BackgroundDopamine and serotonin in fear extinction: some key questions to be addressed
Vicario, C. M., & Martino, G. (2020) · AIMS neuroscience · doi:10.3934/neuroscience.2020014 · Cited by 2
“This is supported also at the neural level, as the serotonergic system of the dorsal raphe nucleus [24], which is considered the system that opposes dopaminergic activity [25], has important innervations with several regions of the brain considered crucial in fear extinction learning such as the VTA [26], the Amygdala…”
BackgroundChase, H. W. (2021) · Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s40473-021-00228-7 · Cited by 2
“During the 1960s and 1970s, the “ learned helplessness ” paradigm became an important preoccupation of translational research into mood and anxiety disorders [1].”
BackgroundAcquisition of responses with different effort requirements after exposure to noncontingent stimuli
Silva, C. H. S., & Micheletto, N. (2020) · Psicologia - Teoria e Prática · doi:10.5935/1980-6906/psicologia.v22n3p161-184 · Cited by 2
“Learned helplessness (Maier & Seligman, 2016) establishes that the subject learns, during exposure to uncontrollable events, the independent relationship between its responses and environmental events, which interferes in the acquisition of an operant response.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMy Learned Helplessness is Accelerating to Self-Handicapping
Özen, Y. (2020) · Psychology and Behavioral Science International Journal · doi:10.19080/pbsij.2019.10.555895 · Cited by 1
Developmental shifts in computations used to detect environmental controllabilityPreprint
Raab, H. A., Foord, C., Ligneul, R., et al. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xdt9p · Cited by 2
The Psychological Impact of Threat & Lockdowns During the COVID-19 PandemicPreprint
van Mulukom, V., Muzzulini, B., Rutjens, B. T., Lissa, C. J. V., & Farias, M. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/c8weq · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. E. P.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 2016-07
- Volume
- 123
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 349-367
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- PMC
- PMC4920136
- OpenAlex
- W2471673808
- Cited by
- 1,031
- References
- 100
- Citations by year
- 2026: 152 · 2025: 153 · 2024: 115 · 2023: 165 · 2022: 105 · 2021: 106 · 2020: 97 · 2019: 66 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 5
- FWCI
- 18.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (MH050479)
- John Templeton Foundation (37495; 37494)
- Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (63597; 68709)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- learned helplessness, medial prefrontal cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, passivity, depression treatment, aversive stimulation, escape behavior
- MeSH terms
- Amygdala, Animals, Anxiety, Avoidance Learning, Helplessness, Learned, Humans, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Learning, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Psychological Theory, Serotonin, Prefrontal Cortex, Dorsal Raphe Nucleus
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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