Cited by 323Misinformation and Its ImpactsDeception detection and forensic psychologySocial and Intergroup Psychology

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 98 of the 98 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Long-term effectiveness of inoculation against misinformation: Three longitudinal experiments.

Open access

Maertens, Rakoen, Roozenbeek, Jon, Basol, Melisa, van der Linden, Sander·2021·Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied

DOI 10.1037/xap0000315

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

= 170), participants played either Bad News (inoculation group) or Tetris (gamified control group) and rated the reliability of news headlines that either used a misinformation technique or not. We found that participants rate fake news as significantly less reliable after the intervention. In Experiment 1, we assessed participants at regular intervals to explore the longevity of this effect and found that the inoculation effect remains stable for at least 3 months. In Experiment 2, we sought to replicate these findings without regular testing and found significant decay over a 2-month time period so that the long-term inoculation effect was no longer significant. In Experiment 3, we replicated the inoculation effect and investigated whether long-term effects could be due to item-response memorization or the fake-to-real ratio of items presented, but found that this is not the case. We discuss implications for inoculation theory and psychological research on misinformation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/xap0000315

Cites

98 of 98 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

The spread of true and false news online
Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aap9559 · Cited by 8,847 · cited 2×
“Lastly, because fake news tends to spread faster and deeper than other types of news, fact-checkers continually remain behind the curve (Vosoughi et al., 2018).”
Background
A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing.
Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.82.6.407 · Cited by 8,141
Book Review: The Psychology of Attitudes
Chakravarti, D., Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1997) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3151869 · Cited by 7,173
Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election
Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017) · Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.31.2.211 · Cited by 6,767
Cognitive Reflection and Decision Making
Frederick, S. (2005) · Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/089533005775196732 · Cited by 5,256
The science of fake news
Lazer, D. M. J., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., Metzger, M. J., Nyhan, B., Pennycook, G., Rothschild, D., et al. (2018) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aao2998 · Cited by 4,160
Evaluating Effect Size in Psychological Research: Sense and Nonsense
Funder, D. C., & Ozer, D. J. (2019) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2515245919847202 · Cited by 3,295
Misinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and Successful Debiasing
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100612451018 · Cited by 2,920
Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x · Cited by 2,867
The organization of recent and remote memories
Frankland, P. W., & Bontempi, B. (2005) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1607 · Cited by 2,138

Show all 97 references

Sorted by citations

The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction
Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N., Kendeou, P., Vraga, E. K., & Amazeen, M. A. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y · Cited by 1,372
Countering Misinformation and Fake News Through Inoculation and Prebunking
Lewandowsky, S., & van der Linden, S. (2021) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2021.1876983 · Cited by 773
Inoculating Against Fake News About COVID-19
van der Linden, S., Roozenbeek, J., & Compton, J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566790 · Cited by 632
Self-citation
Misinformation: susceptibility, spread, and interventions to immunize the public
van der Linden, S. (2022) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-022-01713-6 · Cited by 570
Psychological inoculation improves resilience against misinformation on social media
Roozenbeek, J., van der Linden, S., Goldberg, B., Rathje, S., & Lewandowsky, S. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abo6254 · Cited by 472
Self-citation
Towards psychological herd immunity: Cross-cultural evidence for two prebunking interventions against COVID-19 misinformation
Basol, M., Roozenbeek, J., Berriche, M., Uenal, F., McClanahan, W. P., & Linden, S. V. D. (2021) · Big Data & Society · doi:10.1177/20539517211013868 · Cited by 271
Self-citation
The impact of misinformation on the COVID-19 pandemic
Cáceres, M. M. F., Sosa, J. P., Lawrence, J. A., Sestacovschi, C., Tidd-Johnson, A., Rasool, M. H. U., Gadamidi, V. K., Ozair, S., Pandav, K. B., Cuevas-Lou, C., et al. (2022) · AIMS Public Health · doi:10.3934/publichealth.2022018 · Cited by 254
Psychological Inoculation against Misinformation: Current Evidence and Future Directions
Traberg, C. S., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162221087936 · Cited by 224
Self-citation
Misinformation, disinformation, and fake news: lessons from an interdisciplinary, systematic literature review
Broda, E., & Strömbäck, J. (2024) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1080/23808985.2024.2323736 · Cited by 310
Political Psychology in the Digital (mis)Information age: A Model of News Belief and Sharing
Van Bavel, J. J., Harris, E. A., Pärnamets, P., Rathje, S., Doell, K. C., & Tucker, J. A. (2021) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12077 · Cited by 213
Inoculation theory in the post‐truth era: Extant findings and new frontiers for contested science, misinformation, and conspiracy theories
Compton, J., van der Linden, S., Cook, J., & Basol, M. (2021) · Social & Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12602 · Cited by 184
Self-citation
Toolbox of individual-level interventions against online misinformation
Kozyreva, A., Lorenz-Spreen, P., Herzog, S. M., Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Hertwig, R., Ali, A., Bak-Coleman, J. B., Barzilai, S., Basol, M., et al. (2024) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-024-01881-0 · Cited by 302
Self-citation
Spread of misinformation on social media: What contributes to it and how to combat it
Chen, S., Xiao, L., & Kumar, A. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107643 · Cited by 239
Visual Mis- and Disinformation, Social Media, and Democracy
Dan, V., Paris, B., Donovan, J., Hameleers, M., Roozenbeek, J., van der Linden, S., & von Sikorski, C. (2021) · Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10776990211035395 · Cited by 144
Self-citation
Five rules for evidence communication
Blastland, M., Freeman, A. L. J., van der Linden, S., Marteau, T. M., & Spiegelhalter, D. J. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-020-03189-1 · Cited by 140
Breaking Harmony Square: A game that “inoculates” against political misinformation
Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2020) · Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review · doi:10.37016/mr-2020-47 · Cited by 171
Self-citation
Gamified inoculation interventions do not improve discrimination between true and fake news: Reanalyzing existing research with receiver operating characteristic analysis.
Modirrousta-Galian, A., & Higham, P. A. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001395 · Cited by 162
Countering Misinformation
Roozenbeek, J., Culloty, E., & Suiter, J. (2023) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000492 · Cited by 151
Self-citation
How Accurate Are Accuracy-Nudge Interventions? A Preregistered Direct Replication of Pennycook et al. (2020)
Roozenbeek, J., Freeman, A. L. J., & van der Linden, S. (2021) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976211024535 · Cited by 121
Self-citation
A comparison of prebunking and debunking interventions for implied versus explicit misinformation
Tay, L. Q., Hurlstone, M. J., Kurz, T., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2021) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12551 · Cited by 114
The Misinformation Susceptibility Test (MIST): A psychometrically validated measure of news veracity discernment
Maertens, R., Götz, F. M., Golino, H. F., Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Kyrychenko, Y., Kerr, J. R., Stieger, S., McClanahan, W. P., III, Drabot, K., et al. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02124-2 · Cited by 161
Self-citation
Effects of fact‐checking warning labels and social endorsement cues on climate change fake news credibility and engagement on social media
Koch, T. K., Frischlich, L., & Lermer, E. (2023) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12959 · Cited by 123
Susceptibility to misinformation is consistent across question framings and response modes and better explained by myside bias and partisanship than analytical thinking
Roozenbeek, J., Maertens, R., Herzog, S. M., Geers, M., Kurvers, R. H. J. M., Sultan, M., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500003570 · Cited by 106
Self-citation
Are conspiracy theories harmless?
Douglas, K. M. (2021) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2021.10 · Cited by 92
“Serious games using similar techniques have already been shown to effectively reduce the impact of misinformation more generally (Maertens et al., 2020).”
Background
Psychological Inoculation for Credibility Assessment, Sharing Intention, and Discernment of Misinformation: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Lu, C. F., Hu, B., Li, Q., Bi, C., & Ju, X. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/49255 · Cited by 112
Development of a Codebook of Online Anti-Vaccination Rhetoric to Manage COVID-19 Vaccine Misinformation
Hughes, B., Miller‐Idriss, C., Piltch-Loeb, R. N., White, K., Creizis, M., Cain, C., & Savoia, E. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18147556 · Cited by 104
Technique-based inoculation against real-world misinformation
Roozenbeek, J., Traberg, C. S., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.211719 · Cited by 89
Self-citation
Inoculating against COVID-19 vaccine misinformation
van der Linden, S., Dixon, G., Clarke, C. J., & Cook, J. (2021) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100772 · Cited by 82
Let the algorithm speak: How to use neural networks for automatic item generation in psychological scale development.
Götz, F. M., Maertens, R., Loomba, S., & van der Linden, S. (2023) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000540 · Cited by 104
Self-citation
Recent trends in vaccine coverage and confidence: A cause for concern
Eagan, R. L., Larson, H. J., & de Figueiredo, A. (2023) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2023.2237374 · Cited by 74
How Can Psychological Science Help Counter the Spread of Fake News?
van der Linden, S., Roozenbeek, J., Maertens, R., Basol, M., Kácha, O., Rathje, S., & Traberg, C. S. (2021) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2021.23 · Cited by 71
Self-citation
Developing critical thinking skills through gamification
Angelelli, C. V., Ribeiro, G. M. D. C., Severino, M. R., Johnstone, E., Borzenkova, G., & da Silva, D. C. O. (2023) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101354 · Cited by 67
Media Literacy Interventions Improve Resilience to Misinformation: A Meta-Analytic Investigation of Overall Effect and Moderating Factors
Huang, G., Jia, W., & Yu, W. (2024) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/00936502241288103 · Cited by 126
Social and Cognitive Aspects of the Vulnerability to Political Misinformation
Pantazi, M., Hale, S. A., & Klein, O. (2021) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12797 · Cited by 81
How to Combat Health Misinformation: A Psychological Approach
Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/08901171211070958 · Cited by 60
Self-citation
Misinformation Is Contagious: Middle school students learn how to evaluate and share information responsibly through a digital game
Barzilai, S., Mor-Hagani, S., Abed, F., Tal-Savir, D., Goldik, N., Talmon, I., & Davidow, O. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104832 · Cited by 69
Boosting people’s ability to detect microtargeted advertising
Lorenz-Spreen, P., Geers, M., Pachur, T., Hertwig, R., Lewandowsky, S., & Herzog, S. M. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-94796-z · Cited by 58
Individual Differences in Belief in Fake News about Election Fraud after the 2020 U.S. Election
Calvillo, D. P., Rutchick, A. M., & Garcia, R. J. B. (2021) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs11120175 · Cited by 61
Toolbox of Interventions Against Online MisinformationPreprint
Kozyreva, A., Lorenz-Spreen, P., Herzog, S. M., Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Hertwig, R., Ali, A., Bak-Coleman, J. B., Barzilai, S., Basol, M., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/x8ejt · Cited by 50
Self-citation
Exploring content of misinformation about HPV vaccine on twitter
Kornides, M. L., Badlis, S., Head, K. J., Putt, M. E., Cappella, J. N., & Gonzalez‐Hernandez, G. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-022-00342-1 · Cited by 49
Review of social science research on the impact of countermeasures against influence operations
Courchesne, L., Ilhardt, J. G., & Shapiro, J. N. (2021) · Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review · doi:10.37016/mr-2020-79 · Cited by 56
Diet-Nutrition Information Seeking, Source Trustworthiness, and Eating Behavior Changes: An International Web-Based Survey
Ruani, M. A., Reiss, M. J., & Kalea, A. Z. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15214515 · Cited by 47
Benefits and Pitfalls of Debunking Interventions to Counter mRNA Vaccination Misinformation During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Schmid, P., & Betsch, C. (2022) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/10755470221129608 · Cited by 44
Strategies to combat misinformation: Enduring effects of a 15-minute online intervention on critical-thinking adolescents
Orosz, G., Faragó, L., Paskuj, B., & Krekó, P. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108338 · Cited by 62
Testing the Efficacy of Attitudinal Inoculation Videos to Enhance COVID-19 Vaccine Acceptance: Quasi-Experimental Intervention Trial
Piltch-Loeb, R., Su, M., Hughes, B., Testa, M. A., Goldberg, B., Braddock, K., Miller-Idriss, C., Maturo, V., & Savoia, E. (2021) · JMIR Public Health and Surveillance · doi:10.2196/34615 · Cited by 41
Countering misinformation through psychological inoculation
van der Linden, S. (2023) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2023.11.001 · Cited by 51
Active inoculation boosts attitudinal resistance against extremist persuasion techniques: a novel approach towards the prevention of violent extremism
Saleh, N., Roozenbeek, J., Makki, F., McClanahan, W. P., III, & van der Linden, S. (2021) · Behavioural Public Policy · doi:10.1017/bpp.2020.60 · Cited by 44
Self-citation
Curating Quality? How Twitter’s Timeline Algorithm Treats Different Types of News
Bandy, J., & Diakopoulos, N. A. (2021) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051211041648 · Cited by 41
Psychological booster shots targeting memory increase long-term resistance against misinformation
Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Simons, J. S., Lewandowsky, S., Maturo, V., Goldberg, B., Xu, R., & van der Linden, S. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-57205-x · Cited by 38
Self-citation
Changing the incentive structure of social media platforms to halt the spread of misinformation
Globig, L. K., Holtz, N., & Sharot, T. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.85767 · Cited by 56
A Framework for Understanding the Effects of Strategic Communication Campaigns
Goldberg, M. H., & Gustafson, A. (2022) · International Journal of Strategic Communication · doi:10.1080/1553118x.2022.2137674 · Cited by 43
Psychological interventions countering misinformation in social media: A scoping review
Gwiaździński, P., Gundersen, A. B., Piksa, M., Krysińska, I., Kunst, J. R., Noworyta, K., Olejniuk, A., Morzy, M., Ryguła, R., Wójtowicz, T., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.974782 · Cited by 47
Managing Infodemics in the 21st Century
Purnat, T. D., Nguyen, T., & Briand, S. C. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-27789-4 · Cited by 54
Can Media Literacy Intervention Improve Fake News Credibility Assessment? A Meta-Analysis
Lu, C. F., Hu, B., Bao, M.-M., Wang, C., Bi, C., & Ju, X. (2024) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2023.0324 · Cited by 58
Two interventions for mitigating the harms of greenwashing on consumer perceptions
Dutta‐Powell, R., Rhee, J. J.-S., & Wodak, S. (2023) · Business Strategy and the Environment · doi:10.1002/bse.3520 · Cited by 46
Combating misinformation: A megastudy of nine interventions designed to reduce the sharing of and belief in false and misleading headlinesPreprint
Fazio, L. K., Rand, D. G., Lewandowsky, S., Susmann, M. W., Berinsky, A. J., Guess, A. M., Kendeou, P., Lyons, B. A., Miller, J. M., Newman, E. J., et al. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/uyjha · Cited by 38
Tackling misinformation with games: a systematic literature review
Kiili, K. J. M., Siuko, J., & Ninaus, M. (2024) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2023.2299999 · Cited by 57
A Generational Approach to Fight Fake News: In Search of Effective Media Literacy Training and Interventions
Dumitru, E.-A., Ivan, L., & Loos, E. F. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05581-2_22 · Cited by 34
Communication vs evidence: What hinders the outreach of science during an infodemic? A narrative review
Bella, E. L., Allen, C., & Lirussi, F. (2021) · Integrative Medicine Research · doi:10.1016/j.imr.2021.100731 · Cited by 38
Psychological inoculation can reduce susceptibility to misinformation in large rational agent networks
Pilditch, T. D., Roozenbeek, J., Madsen, J. K., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.211953 · Cited by 46
Self-citation
The Spot the Troll Quiz game increases accuracy in discerning between real and inauthentic social media accounts
Lees, J. M., Banas, J. A., Linvill, D. L., Meirick, P. C., & Warren, P. L. (2023) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad094 · Cited by 33
Sourcing against misinformation: Effects of a scalable lateral reading training based on cognitive apprenticeship
Fendt, M., Nistor, N., Scheibenzuber, C., & Artmann, B. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.107820 · Cited by 31
Investigating the role of source and source trust in prebunks and debunks of misinformation in online experiments across four EU countries
Bruns, H., Dessart, F. J., Krawczyk, M. W., Lewandowsky, S., Pantazi, M., Pennycook, G., Schmid, P., & Smillie, L. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-71599-6 · Cited by 34
The Misinformation Susceptibility Test (MIST): A psychometrically validated measure of news veracity discernmentPreprint
Maertens, R., Götz, F. M., Golino, H. F., Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Kyrychenko, Y., Kerr, J. R., Stieger, S., McClanahan, W. P., III, Drabot, K., et al. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gk68h · Cited by 31
Self-citation
In generative AI we trust: can chatbots effectively verify political information?
Kuznetsova, E., Makhortykh, M., Vziatysheva, V., Stolze, M., Baghumyan, A., & Urman, A. (2025) · Journal of Computational Social Science · doi:10.1007/s42001-024-00338-8 · Cited by 32
Media literacy tips promoting reliable news improve discernment and enhance trust in traditional media
Altay, S., Angelis, A. D., & Hoes, E. (2024) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-024-00121-5 · Cited by 44
COVID-19 Vaccine Fact-Checking Posts on Facebook: Observational Study
Xue, H., Gong, X., & Stevens, H. (2022) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/38423 · Cited by 30
Buffering against exposure to mental health misinformation in online communities on Facebook: the interplay of depression literacy and expert moderation
Bizzotto, N., de Bruijn, G., & Schulz, P. J. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-16404-1 · Cited by 33
Refuting Spurious COVID-19 Treatment Claims Reduces Demand and Misinformation Sharing
MacFarlane, D., Tay, L. Q., Hurlstone, M. J., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2020) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.12.005 · Cited by 60
Fighting COVID-19 Misinformation through an Online Game Based on the Inoculation Theory: Analyzing the Mediating Effects of Perceived Threat and Persuasion Knowledge
Ma, J., Chen, Y., Zhu, H., & Gan, Y. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20020980 · Cited by 28
Using Psychological Science To Understand And Fight Health Misinformation: An APA Consensus Statement
van der Linden, S., Albarracín, D., Fazio, L. K., Freelon, D., Roozenbeek, J., Swire‐Thompson, B., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2023) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e506432023-001 · Cited by 34
Self-citation
Farewell to Big Data? Studying Misinformation in Mobile Messaging Applications
Rossini, P. (2023) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2023.2193563 · Cited by 27
The perceived feasibility of behavior change is positively associated with support for domain-matched climate policies
Kukowski, C. A., Hofmann, W., Roozenbeek, J., van der Linden, S., Vandenbergh, M. P., & Nielsen, K. S. (2023) · One Earth · doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2023.10.017 · Cited by 33
Self-citation
Bad News in the civics classroom: How serious gameplay fosters teenagers’ ability to discern misinformation techniques
Axelsson, A., Nygren, T., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2024) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2024.2338451 · Cited by 34
Self-citation
Gamified Inoculation Against Misinformation in India: A Randomized Control Trial
Harjani, T., Basol, M., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2023) · Journal of Trial and Error · doi:10.36850/e12 · Cited by 34
Self-citation
A prosocial fake news intervention with durable effects
Orosz, G., Paskuj, B., Faragó, L., & Krekó, P. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-30867-7 · Cited by 24
Communicating expert consensus increases personal support for COVID‐19 mitigation policies
Kerr, J. R., & van der Linden, S. (2021) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12827 · Cited by 23
How to “inoculate” against multimodal misinformation: A conceptual replication of Roozenbeek and van der Linden (2020)
Neylan, J., Biddlestone, M., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-43885-2 · Cited by 33
Self-citation
Processing of misinformation as motivational and cognitive biases
Zhou, Y., & Shen, L. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1430953 · Cited by 30
Sustaining Exposure to Fact-Checks: Misinformation Discernment, Media Consumption, and Its Political Implications
Bowles, J., Croke, K. G., Larreguy, H., Liu, S., & Marshall, J. (2025) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055424001394 · Cited by 31
Adherence to Misinformation on Social Media Through Socio-Cognitive and Group-Based Processes
Efstratiou, A., & Cristofaro, E. D. (2022) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3555589 · Cited by 33
Effects of inductive learning and gamification on news veracity discernment.
Modirrousta-Galian, A., Higham, P. A., & Seabrooke, T. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000458 · Cited by 36
Misinformation interventions decay rapidly without an immediate posttest
Capewell, G., Maertens, R., Remshard, M., van der Linden, S., Compton, J., Lewandowsky, S., & Roozenbeek, J. (2024) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.13049 · Cited by 31
Self-citation
Practical recommendations to communicate with patients about health‐related conspiracy theories
Marques, M. D., Douglas, K. M., & Jolley, D. (2022) · The Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/mja2.51475 · Cited by 23
Taking vaccine regret and hesitancy seriously. The role of truth, conspiracy theories, gender relations and trust in the HPV immunisation programmes in Ireland
Drążkiewicz, E. (2021) · Journal for Cultural Research · doi:10.1080/14797585.2021.1886422 · Cited by 22
COVID-19 Disinformation, Misinformation and Malinformation During the Pandemic Infodemic: A View from the United Kingdom
Verrall, N. (2022) · Advanced sciences and technologies for security applications · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-94825-2_4 · Cited by 22
Community-oriented Motivational Interviewing (MI): A novel framework extending MI to address COVID-19 vaccine misinformation in online social media platforms
Scales, D. A., Gorman, J. M., DiCaprio, P., Hurth, L., Radhakrishnan, M., Windham, S., Akunne, A., Florman, J., Leininger, L. J., & Starks, T. J. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107609 · Cited by 22
The effect of traffic light veracity labels on perceptions of political advertising source and message credibility on social media
Dobber, T., Kruikemeier, S., Votta, F. A., Helberger, N., & Goodman, E. (2023) · Journal of Information Technology & Politics · doi:10.1080/19331681.2023.2224316 · Cited by 20
Sensational stories: The role of narrative characteristics in distinguishing real and fake news and predicting their spread
Hamby, A. M., Kim, H., & Spezzano, F. (2023) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114289 · Cited by 20
Mean rating difference scores are poor measures of discernment: The role of response criteria
Higham, P. A., Modirrousta-Galian, A., & Seabrooke, T. (2023) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101785 · Cited by 22
Debunking “fake news” on social media: Immediate and short-term effects of fact-checking and media literacy interventions
Berger, L., Kerkhof, A., Mindl, F., & Münster, J. (2025) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105345 · Cited by 38
Prebunking Against Misinformation in the Modern Digital Age
Traberg, C. S., Harjani, T., Basol, M., Biddlestone, M., Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-27789-4_8 · Cited by 20
Self-citation
Mitigating Health and Science Misinformation: A Scoping Review of Literature from 2017 to 2022
Heley, K. M., Chou, W. S., D’Angelo, H. M., Senft, N., Muro, A., Rohde, J. A., & Gaysynsky, A. (2024) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2024.2332817 · Cited by 18
Understanding the mechanisms of change in social norms around tobacco use: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of interventions
Lahiri, S., Bingenheimer, J. B., Evans, W. D., Wang, Y., Cislaghi, B., Dubey, P., & Snowden, B. (2024) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.16685 · Cited by 19
Misinformation and the sins of memory: False-belief formation and limits on belief revision.
Newman, E. J., Swire‐Thompson, B., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2022) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/mac0000090 · Cited by 22
How can we combat online misinformation? A systematic overview of current interventions and their efficacyPreprint
Johansson, P., Enoch, F., Hale, S. A., Vidgen, B., Bereskin, C., Margetts, H. Z., & Bright, J. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4648332 · Cited by 30
A signal detection theory meta-analysis of psychological inoculation against misinformation
Simchon, A., Zipori, T., Teitelbaum, L., Lewandowsky, S., & van der Linden, S. (2025) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102194 · Cited by 24
Mixed News about the Bad News Game
Graham, M. E., Skov, B., Gilson, Z. M., Heise, C., Fallow, K. M., Mah, E. Y., & Lindsay, D. S. (2023) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.324 · Cited by 16
Resistance to Persuasion: Examining the Influence of Political Ideology on COVID-19 Vaccine Uptake Hesitancy
Brinson, N. H. (2022) · Frontiers in Communication · doi:10.3389/fcomm.2021.760847 · Cited by 16
Psychological Booster Shots Targeting Memory Increase Long-Term Resistance Against MisinformationPreprint
Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Simons, J. S., Lewandowsky, S., Maturo, V., Goldberg, B., Xu, R., & van der Linden, S. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/6r9as · Cited by 16
Self-citation

Authors: Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Basol, M., & van der Linden, S.
Affiliations: University of Cambridge (GB)
ORCID: Maertens, Rakoen
Roozenbeek, Jon
Basol, Melisa
van der Linden, Sander
Venue: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2021-03
Volume: 27
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-16
ISSN: 1076-898X (ISSN-L)
1939-2192
DOI: 10.1037/xap0000315
OpenAlex: W3089476379
Semantic Scholar: 6099649830c65c02b4008f5e57a18ebd8332a2ee
Cited by: 321
References: 97
Citations by year: 2026: 45 · 2025: 58 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 34
FWCI: 52.72
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
doi.org
Locations: Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion)
Apollo
Funders: Cambridge Trust
Economic and Social Research Council (ES/V011960/1, 2268886)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Deception detection and forensic psychology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: inoculation theory, misinformation, fake news, long-term effects, gamification, Tetris
MeSH terms: Communication, Humans, Deception, Reproducibility of Results

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Long-term effectiveness of inoculation against misinformation: Three longitudinal experiments.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks