How Can Psychological Science Help Counter the Spread of Fake News?
Open accessAbstract
In recent years, interest in the psychology of fake news has rapidly increased. We outline the various interventions within psychological science aimed at countering the spread of fake news and misinformation online, focusing primarily on corrective (debunking) and pre-emptive (prebunking) approaches. We also offer a research agenda of open questions within the field of psychological science that relate to how and why fake news spreads and how best to counter it: the longevity of intervention effectiveness; the role of sources and source credibility; whether the sharing of fake news is best explained by the motivated cognition or the inattention accounts; and the complexities of developing psychometrically validated instruments to measure how interventions affect susceptibility to fake news at the individual level.
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Partisan motivations have been hypothesized to influence online behavior, such as the sharing of true and false news online.
“Partisan motivations have been hypothesized to influence online behavior, such as the sharing of true and false news online (39, 40).”
From Out-group animosity drives engagement on social media (2021) · cites this paper as [40]
Because social media platforms allow information to spread with less friction than in traditional news outlets, misinformation and conspiracy theories are able to go rapidly viral.
“Because social media platforms allow information to spread with less friction than in traditional news outlets, such as newspapers or television news, misinformation and conspiracy theories are able to go rapidly viral (Robertson et al. 2022, Van Bavel et al. 2021a, van der Linden et al. 2021).”
From Social Media and Morality. (2024) · cites this paper as van der Linden et al. 2021
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Self-citationThe Role of Source, Headline and Expressive Responding in Political News Evaluation
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Albarracín, D., Kumkale, G. T., & Vento, P. P.-D. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2016.06.009 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
On WhatsApp, Rumours, Lynchings, and the Indian GovernmentPreprint
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Refuting Spurious COVID-19 Treatment Claims Reduces Demand and Misinformation SharingPreprint
MacFarlane, D., Tay, L. Q., Hurlstone, M. J., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/q3mkd · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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Self-citationLewandowsky, S., Cook, J., & Lombardi, D. (2020) · OpenBU (Boston University) · doi:10.17910/b7.1182 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 118 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
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Out-group animosity drives engagement on social media
Rathje, S., Van Bavel, J. J., & van der Linden, S. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2024292118 · Cited by 560 · see citing works
Self-citationMisinformation: susceptibility, spread, and interventions to immunize the public
van der Linden, S. (2022) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-022-01713-6 · Cited by 570 · see citing works
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Self-citationPennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-30073-5 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Quantifying the impact of misinformation and vaccine-skeptical content on Facebook
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Visual Mis- and Disinformation, Social Media, and Democracy
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Self-citationVan Bavel, J. J., Robertson, C. E., del Rosario, K., Rasmussen, J., & Rathje, S. (2024) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-022123-110258 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Self-citationAccuracy and social motivations shape judgements of (mis)information
Rathje, S., Roozenbeek, J., Bavel, J. J. V., & van der Linden, S. (2023) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-023-01540-w · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Self-citationMaertens, R., Götz, F. M., Golino, H. F., Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Kyrychenko, Y., Kerr, J. R., Stieger, S., McClanahan, W. P., III, Drabot, K., et al. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02124-2 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Self-citationRoozenbeek, J., Maertens, R., Herzog, S. M., Geers, M., Kurvers, R. H. J. M., Sultan, M., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500003570 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial media behavior is associated with vaccine hesitancy
Rathje, S., He, J. K., Roozenbeek, J., Van Bavel, J. J., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac207 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Self-citationNudging Social Media toward Accuracy
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2022) · The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162221092342 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
People think that social media platforms do (but should not) amplify divisive content
Rathje, S., Robertson, C., Brady, W. J., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2024) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916231190392 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citationHow to Combat Health Misinformation: A Psychological Approach
Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/08901171211070958 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationOn modeling the correlates of conspiracy thinking
Enders, A. M., Diekman, A. B., Klofstad, C., Murthi, M. N., Verdear, D., Wuchty, S., & Uscinski, J. E. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-34391-6 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Using Social and Behavioral Science to Support COVID-19 Pandemic Response
Cucchiarini, V., Lunn, P., Robertson, D. A., & Viale, R. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_319-1 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Tackling misinformation with games: a systematic literature review
Kiili, K. J. M., Siuko, J., & Ninaus, M. (2024) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2023.2299999 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Pilditch, T. D., Roozenbeek, J., Madsen, J. K., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.211953 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationFaragó, L., Krekó, P., & Orosz, G. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-26724-8 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Who falls for fake news? Psychological and clinical profiling evidence of fake news consumers
Escolà‐Gascón, Á., Dagnall, N., Denovan, A., Drinkwater, K. G., & Bosch, M. D. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111893 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Accuracy and Social Motivations Shape Judgements of (Mis)InformationPreprint
Rathje, S., Roozenbeek, J., Bavel, J. J. V., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hkqyv · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationTime pressure reduces misinformation discrimination ability but does not alter response bias
Sultan, M., Tump, A., Geers, M., Lorenz-Spreen, P., Herzog, S., & Kurvers, R. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-26209-8 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
On the Efficacy of Accuracy Prompts Across Partisan Lines: An Adversarial Collaboration
Martel, C., Rathje, S., Clark, C. J., Pennycook, G., Bavel, J. J. V., Rand, D. G., & van der Linden, S. (2024) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976241232905 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationMorality in the anthropocene: The perversion of compassion and punishment in the online world
Robertson, C. E., Shariff, A., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2024) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae193 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Who knowingly shares false political information online?
Littrell, S., Klofstad, C., Diekman, A. B., Funchion, J., Murthi, M. N., Premaratne, K., Seelig, M. I., Verdear, D., Wuchty, S., & Uscinski, J. E. (2023) · Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review · doi:10.37016/mr-2020-121 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Fournier, V., & Varet, F. (2023) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12702 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Hu, B., Ju, X., Liu, H., Wu, H.-Q., Bi, C., & Lu, C. F. (2023) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-023-00505-x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The role of perceived minority-group status in the conspiracy beliefs of factual majority groups
Gundersen, A., van der Linden, S., Piksa, M., Morzy, M., Piasecki, J., Rygula, R., Gwiaździński, P., Noworyta, K., & Kunst, J. R. (2023) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.221036 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Brailovskaia, J., & Margraf, J. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2022.100317 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The Online Misinformation Susceptibility Scale: Development and Initial Validation
Katsiroumpa, A., Moisoglou, I., Mangoulia, P., Konstantakopoulou, O., Gallos, P., Tsiachri, M., & Galanis, P. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13172252 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Lyubykh, Z., Barclay, L. J., Fortin, M., Bashshur, M. R., & Khakhar, M. (2022) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2022.100177 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Schüz, B., & Jones, C. M. (2024) · Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz · doi:10.1007/s00103-024-03836-2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Özdinç, A., Değer, M. S., Atak, M., & Demir, İ. (2023) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines11010104 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Reasons people avoid colorectal cancer information: a mixed-methods study
Orom, H., Stanar, S., Allard, N. C., Hay, J. L., Waters, E. A., Kiviniemi, M. T., & Lewicka, M. (2023) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2023.2280177 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Craig, M., & Vijaykumar, S. (2023) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051231161298 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Sabherwal, A. C., Shreedhar, G., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cresp.2022.100051 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
An international effort using behavioural science to tackle the spread of misinformation
OECD (2022) · Public governance policy papers · doi:10.1787/b7709d4f-en · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Time Pressure Reduces Misinformation Discrimination Ability But Does Not Alter Response BiasPreprint
Sultan, M., Tump, A. N., Geers, M., Lorenz-Spreen, P., Herzog, S. M., & Kurvers, R. H. J. M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/brn5s · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Lin, L., Ortega, D. L., & Sun, J. (2024) · Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy · doi:10.1002/aepp.13487 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Group membership biases children’s evaluation of evidence
Confer, J. A., Champ, A. M., Amir, D., Schleihauf, H., & Engelmann, J. M. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-66085-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The politicization of medical preprints on Twitter during the early stages of COVID-19 pandemic
Urman, A., Ionescu, S., García, D., & Hannák, A. (2022) · Journal of Quantitative Description Digital Media · doi:10.51685/jqd.2022.003 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rauwolf, P. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3946 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
SILVA, K. M. F. D. C. E., & Presser, N. H. (2023) · Em Questão · doi:10.19132/1808-5245.29.124379 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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The moderating effect of fake news on the relationship between behavioral patterns and vaccines
Salas-Paramo, J. A., & Barbosa, D. E. (2022) · Cogent Social Sciences · doi:10.1080/23311886.2022.2103900 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Johnson, S. S. (2022) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/08901171211070957a · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Tackling Misinformation with Games: A Systematic Literature ReviewPreprint
Kiili, K. J. M., Siuko, J., & Ninaus, M. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/8qrx3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Howe, P. D. L., Perfors, A., Ransom, K., Walker, B., Fay, N., Kashima, Y., & Saletta, M. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/pknze · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Li, M., Devane, D., Beecher, C., Dowling, M., Duffy, A. G., Duggan, C., Grimes, D. R., Kennan, A., Kilty, C., Nsangi, A., et al. (2024) · PEC Innovation · doi:10.1016/j.pecinn.2024.100311 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Applying Misinformation Interventions to Library Instruction and Outreach
Goodsett, M. (2023) · Journal of New Librarianship · doi:10.33011/newlibs/14/9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Can Education Save Us From Ourselves? Three Psychological Challenges to Democracy
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РОЛЬ МЕДІАГРАМОТНОСТІ У БОРОТЬБІ З ІНФОДЕМІЄЮ
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Improved detection of fake news using combined semantic analysis and a source credibility evaluation
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The influence and continued influence of misinformation: A review
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- Authors
- van der Linden, S., Roozenbeek, J., Maertens, R., Basol, M., Kácha, O., Rathje, S., & Traberg, C. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Spanish Journal of Psychology
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2021
- Volume
- 24
- Pages
- e25-e25
- ISSN
- 1138-7416 (ISSN-L)
- 1988-2904
- OpenAlex
- W3152660840
- Cited by
- 71
- References
- 118
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 21.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Spanish Journal of Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion)
- Apollo
- Funders
- University of Cambridge
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/V011960/1, 2268886)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Deception detection and forensic psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Climate Change Communication and Perception
- Keywords
- fake news, misinformation, debunking, prebunking, source credibility, motivated cognition, inattention, online information sharing, misinformation susceptibility
- MeSH terms
- Mental Disorders, Cognition, Communication, Humans, Deception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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