Inoculating Against Fake News About COVID-19
Open accessAbstract
The outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) has been accompanied by a large amount of misleading and false information about the virus, especially on social media. In this article, we explore the coronavirus “infodemic” and how behavioral scientists may seek to address this problem. We detail the scope of the problem and discuss the negative influence that COVID-19 misinformation can have on the widespread adoption of health protective behaviors in the population. In response, we explore how insights from the behavioral sciences can be leveraged to manage an effective societal response to curb the spread of misinformation about the virus. In particular, we discuss the theory of psychological inoculation (or prebunking) as an efficient vehicle for conferring large-scale psychological resistance against fake news.
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In the UK 46% and in the US 48% of people were exposed to false information about COVID-19.
“46% of people in the UK and 48% of people in the United States were exposed to false information.”
From The Lancet Commission on lessons for the future from the COVID-19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as [242]
All countries were highly vulnerable to pandemic-related false and misleading information.
“All countries proved to be highly vulnerable to disinformation and misinformation regarding the pandemic”
From The Lancet Commission on lessons for the future from the COVID-19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as [242]
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“and vaccine opinions, following the method of Multiple Regression Quadratic Assignment Procedure with Double Semi Partialing (62).”
MethodSelf-citationPersuasive strategies in online health misinformation: a systematic review
Peng, W., Lim, S., & Meng, J. (2022) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2022.2085615 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“…such as older adults (Allen et al., 2020; Guess et al., 2019), minorities (Austin et al., 2021), individuals with lower trust in science, mainstream media, or government and higher conservatism (Plohl & Musil, 2021; van der Linden et al., 2020), and lower education (Scherer et al., 2021).”
BackgroundImplications for COVID-19 vaccine uptake: A systematic review
Adu, P., Popoola, T., Medvedev, O. N., Collings, S. C., Mbinta, J. F., Aspin, C., & Simpson, C. R. (2023) · Journal of Infection and Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2023.01.020 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“exposing individuals to a version of already known information, which they can refute) [115].”
BackgroundFake news detection: Taxonomy and comparative study
Farhangian, F., Cruz, R. M. O., & Cavalcanti, G. D. C. (2023) · Information Fusion · doi:10.1016/j.inffus.2023.102140 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
How Can Psychological Science Help Counter the Spread of Fake News?
van der Linden, S., Roozenbeek, J., Maertens, R., Basol, M., Kácha, O., Rathje, S., & Traberg, C. S. (2021) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2021.23 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationAli, K. I., Li, C., Zain-ul-abdin, K., & Muqtadir, S. A. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107307 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Amazeen, M. A., Krishna, A., & Eschmann, R. (2022) · Science communication · doi:10.1177/10755470221111558 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“This process is called prebunking (Cook, 2016; Ecker et al., 2022; Lewandowsky et al., 2020; van der Linden et al., 2020).”
BackgroundGoldberg, R. F., & Vandenberg, L. N. (2021) · Environmental Health · doi:10.1186/s12940-021-00723-0 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“ineffective while posing risks to patients) [65].”
Oleksy, T., Wnuk, A., Gambin, M., & Łyś, A. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114028 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“…‘inoculation’ against conspiracy theories could be a potential complement to the so-called pre-emptive debunking (e.g., Roozenbeek and van der Linden, 2020; van der Linden et al., 2020), which depends on weakening the effect of misinformation via providing individuals with warnings against…”
BackgroundReplicating Viral Vector-Based Vaccines for COVID-19: Potential Avenue in Vaccination Arena
Chavda, V. P., Bezbaruah, R., Athalye, M., Parikh, P. K., Chhipa, A. S., Patel, S. S., & Apostolopoulos, V. (2022) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v14040759 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Although a very questionable notion to believe in, the theory of the manmade or accidental origin of the deadly virus also exists [25].”
BackgroundRubinelli, S., Purnat, T. D., Wilhelm, E., Traicoff, D. A., Namageyo-Funa, A., Thomson, A., Wardle, C., Lamichhane, J., Briand, S. C., & Nguyen, T. (2022) · Human Resources for Health · doi:10.1186/s12960-022-00733-0 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Sun, X., Li, B. J., Zhang, H., & Zhang, G. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1140312 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Hermans, L., den Broucke, S. V., Gisle, L., Demarest, S. S., & Charafeddine, R. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11437-w · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Vivion, M., Anassour-Laouan-Sidi, E., Betsch, C., Dionne, M., Dubé, È., Driedger, S., Gagnon, D., Graham, J., Greyson, D. L., Hamel, D., et al. (2022) · Journal of Communication in Healthcare · doi:10.1080/17538068.2022.2044606 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“effectiveness of inoculation has been demonstrated across many different topics and can reduce susceptibility to misinformation across cultures [25, 29, 40, 41].”
BackgroundResultŠrol, J., Čavojová, V., & Mikušková, E. B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.726076 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“…exposed to them is notoriously hard, presenting people with reliable information that can counteract the effect of subsequently encountered misinformation is believed to be an effective strategy for dealing with various, including COVID-19 related, misinformation (van der Linden et al., 2020).”
BackgroundCOVID-19 vaccine rollout risk communication strategies in Europe: a rapid response
Warren, G. W., & Löfstedt, R. E. (2021) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2020.1870533 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Papapicco, C., Lamanna, I., & D’Errico, F. (2022) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti6030020 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Regarding future studies, understanding informative needs and use, psychological causes on the basis of adolescents’ vulnerability to fake news and racial hoaxes can be a way to intervene as a pre-bunking strategy [41] in educational strategies aimed at reinforcing ‘psychological resistance’ against disinformation and…”
BackgroundPredicting COVID-19 Vaccination Intention: The Determinants of Vaccine Hesitancy
Fernandes, N., Costa, D., Costa, D., Keating, J., & Arantes, J. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9101161 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“[39] also warned of the adverse impact of misinformation on strategies to tackle the pandemic since COVID-19 misinformation had been widely spread on social media.”
BackgroundAnsar, W., & Goswami, S. (2021) · International Journal of Information Management Data Insights · doi:10.1016/j.jjimei.2021.100052 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Agley, J. D., Xiao, Y., Thompson, E. E., Chen, X., & Golzarri‐Arroyo, L. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/32425 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
How to Combat Health Misinformation: A Psychological Approach
Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/08901171211070958 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationA novel approach to fake news classification using LSTM-based deep learning models
Padalko, H., Chomko, V., & Chumachenko, D. (2024) · Frontiers in Big Data · doi:10.3389/fdata.2023.1320800 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Adebesin, F., Smuts, H., Mawela, T., Maramba, G., & Hattingh, M. (2023) · JMIR Infodemiology · doi:10.2196/48620 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“9 Frontiers in Psychology 219 Inoculating Against Fake News About COVID-19 van der Linden et al [49], 2020”
Grieve, J., & Woodfield, H. (2023) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009349161 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Hesitancy towards COVID-19 Vaccines: An Analytical Cross–Sectional Study
Aloweidi, A. S., Bsisu, I., Suleiman, A., Abu‐Halaweh, S. A., Mustafa, M., Aqel, M., Amro, A., Radwan, N., Assaf, D. H., Abdullah, M. Z., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18105111 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Using Deep Learning Models to Detect Fake News about COVID-19
Chen, M., Lai, Y.-W., & Lian, J.-W. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Internet Technology · doi:10.1145/3533431 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Few studies have examined the detection of COVID-related fake news, and current detection and awareness efforts rely heavily on relevant experts, which can limit the emergence of conflicting opinion, avoiding individual items from having multiple annotations, thus reducing the difficulty of model training [7][8][9].”
BackgroundOswald, S., Lewiński, M., Greco, S., & Villata, S. (2022) · Argumentation library · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-91017-4 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Kim, H. K., & Tandoc, E. C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.783909 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Viruses, vaccines, and COVID-19: Explaining and improving risky decision-making.
Reyna, V. F., Broniatowski, D. A., & Edelson, S. M. (2021) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2021.08.004 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Vranić, A., Hromatko, I., & Tonković, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.931865 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Jia, H., & Luo, X. (2021) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2021.1958982 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
A link2vec-based fake news detection model using web search results
Shim, J.-S., Lee, Y., & Ahn, H. (2021) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2021.115491 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Burel, G., Farrell, T., & Alani, H. (2021) · Information Processing & Management · doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102732 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Conspiracy theory beliefs, scientific reasoning and the analytical thinking paradox
Georgiou, N., Delfabbro, P., & Balzan, R. P. (2021) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3885 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Rumors in Retweet: Ideological Asymmetry in the Failure to Correct Misinformation
DeVerna, M., Guess, A. M., Berinsky, A. J., Tucker, J. A., & Jost, J. T. (2022) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672221114222 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“This work focuses on the spread of rumors to address a growing interest in, and need to understand, the psychology of misinformation (Pennycook & Rand, 2021; Van Der Linden et al., 2020; Lazer et al., 2017).”
BackgroundAI-driven disinformation: policy recommendations for democratic resilience
Romanishyn, A., Malytska, O., & Goncharuk, V. (2025) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1569115 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Schmid, P., & Betsch, C. (2022) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/10755470221129608 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“This warning is intended to trigger a feeling of threat and increase the receiver’s motivation to resist the maleficent attempt (van der Linden et al., 2020).”
BackgroundFaking Fake News for Real Fake News Detection: Propaganda-Loaded Training Data Generation
Huang, K.-H., McKeown, K. R., Nakov, P., Choi, Y., & Ji, H. (2023) · Proceedings of the conference - Association for Computational Linguistics. Meeting · doi:10.18653/v1/2023.acl-long.815 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Faking Fake News for Real Fake News Detection: Propaganda-loaded Training Data Generation
Huang, K.-H., McKeown, K., Nakov, P., Choi, Y., & Ji, H. (2022) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2203.05386 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“In particular, human-written disin-formation 2 is often used to manipulate certain populations and had a catastrophic impact on multiple events, such as Brexit (Bastos and Mercea, 2019), the COVID-19 pandemic (van Der Linden et al., 2020), and the 2022 Russian assault on Ukraine.”
BackgroundStudy on the Refusal of Vaccination against COVID-19 in Romania
Marcau, F., Purec, S., & Niculescu, G. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10020261 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Orosz, G., Faragó, L., Paskuj, B., & Krekó, P. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108338 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Schäfer, S., Aaldering, L., & Lecheler, S. K. (2022) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205436.2022.2125406 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“That means, citizens are facing an additional challenge to separate true from false information, which can cause confusions and fears of being manipulated (van der Linden et al., 2020).”
Lee, S., de Zúñiga, H. G., & Munger, K. (2023) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1093/hcr/hqad019 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Yuan, L., Jiang, H., Shen, H., Shi, L., & Cheng, N. (2023) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems11090458 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The (Mis)Information Game: A social media simulator
Butler, L. H., Lamont, P. X., Wan, D. L. Y., Prike, T., Nasim, M., Walker, B., Fay, N., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02153-x · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“(Basol et al., 2021), and Cranky Uncle (Cook et al., 2022) teach players common techniques for promoting misinformation in the hope that this has an inoculating effect (van der Linden et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSARS-CoV-2 Vaccination Hesitancy and Behaviors in a National Sample of People Living with HIV
Jaiswal, J., Krause, K. D., Martino, R. J., D’Avanzo, P. A., Griffin, M., Stults, C. B., Karr, A. G., & Halkitis, P. N. (2021) · AIDS Patient Care and STDs · doi:10.1089/apc.2021.0144 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Gjoneska, B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.736838 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“More realistic models and improved experimental designs can inspire future behavioral interventions in the fight against misinformation and conspiracy theories, by cultivating the capacity for analytic, critical and scientific thinking (van der Linden et al., 2020; Lewandowsky et al., 2021).”
BackgroundAI and Blockchain Empowered Metaverse for Web 3.0: Vision, Architecture, and Future Directions
Zhang, X., Min, G., Li, T., Ma, Z., Cao, X., & Wang, S.-W. (2023) · IEEE Communications Magazine · doi:10.1109/mcom.004.2200473 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“, injection of bleach can protect you against the COVID19 virus [3]), which makes it tougher for users to obtain”
Machida, M., Nakamura, I., Kojima, T., Saito, R., Nakaya, T., Hanibuchi, T., Takamiya, T., Odagiri, Y., Fukushima, N., Kikuchi, H., et al. (2021) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2021.1968217 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Regarding COVID-19 infections and vaccines, misleading information and misinformation are spread in various media, especially social media.(36) Previous studies conducted in Western countries reported that susceptibility to misinformation is associated with a lower likelihood of getting vaccinated for COVID-19.”
BackgroundUnderstanding Vaccine Hesitancy: Insights and Improvement Strategies Drawn from a Multi-Study Review
Brumbaugh, K., Gellert, F. R., & Mokdad, A. H. (2025) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines13101003 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Who Believes in Fake News? Identification of Political (A)Symmetries
Baptista, J. P., & Gradim, A. (2022) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci11100460 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“However, despite the motivated political reasoning affecting both in relation to the use of the term “fake news”, the conservative audience is more likely to label the leftist or liberal media (e.g., CNN) as fake news, than liberals are to label the media associated with conservatives (e.g., Fox News) (van der Linden…”
BackgroundInfluentialAn Empirical Study of the Impact of Systems Thinking and Simulation on Sustainability Education
Green, C., Molloy, O., & Duggan, J. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14010394 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
XFlag: Explainable Fake News Detection Model on Social Media
Chien, S.-Y. J., Yang, C., & Yu, F. (2022) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2022.2062113 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“If these fake reports had been better regulated, the outbreak might have had a different outcome (van Der Linden et al., 2020).”
BackgroundTan, W.-K., & Hsu, C. Y. (2022) · Online Information Review · doi:10.1108/oir-08-2021-0448 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Oleksy, T., Wnuk, A., Gambin, M., Łyś, A., Bargiel-Matusiewicz, K., & Pisuła, E. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111524 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Mining User-aware Multi-relations for Fake News Detection in Large Scale Online Social Networks
Su, X., Yang, J. Y., Wu, J. X., & Zhang, Y. (2023) · ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining (WSDM) · doi:10.1145/3539597.3570478 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Caserotti, M., Gavaruzzi, T., Girardi, P., Tasso, A., Buizza, C., Candini, V., Zarbo, C., Chiarotti, F., Brescianini, S., Calamandrei, G., et al. (2021) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106885 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Understanding Anti-COVID-19 Vaccination Protest Slogans in the US
Liao, T. F. (2022) · Frontiers in Communication · doi:10.3389/fcomm.2022.941872 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Moralization and Mismoralization in Public Health
Kraaijeveld, S. R., & Jamrozik, E. (2022) · Medicine Health Care and Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s11019-022-10103-1 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Deep transfer learning for COVID ‐19 fake news detection in Persian
Ghayoomi, M., & Mousavian, M. (2022) · Expert Systems · doi:10.1111/exsy.13008 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…Munich Security Conference on 15 February 2020 proclaimed that ‘ We're not just fighting an epidemic; we're fighting an infodemic ’ (Zarocostas, 2020). van der Linden et al. (2020) have specified some published fake news about the epidemic, including marketing for counterfeit treatments such as…”
BackgroundHealth misinformation: what it is, why people believe it, how to counter it
Nan, X., Thier, K., & Wang, Y. (2023) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1080/23808985.2023.2225489 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…work well to decrease susceptibility to health misinformation (Vraga et al., 2022a, 2022b), more engaging interventions such as literacy games (i.e. pre-bunking) can signi fi cantly boost individuals ’ defenses against misinformation (Roozenbeek & van der Linden, 2019; van der Linden et al., 2020).”
BackgroundChen, E., Jiang, J., Chang, H.-C. H., Murić, G., & Ferrara, E. (2021) · JMIR Infodemiology · doi:10.2196/32378 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Efforts are being made to combat misinformation, including identifying intervention points in social networks to mitigate misinformation [7], teaching the community how to identify misinformation [6], rating source reliability [8], and using both crowdsourced and official fact checkers to identify misinformation [9,10…”
The Impact of SARS-CoV-2 Infection on Youth Mental Health: A Narrative Review
Brasso, C., Bellino, S., Blua, C., Bozzatello, P., & Rocca, P. (2022) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines10040772 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Musi, E., Carmi, E., Reed, C., Yates, S., & O’Halloran, K. (2023) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051221150407 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Emergence of knowledge communities and information centralization during the COVID-19 pandemic
Sacco, P. L., Gallotti, R., Pilati, F., Castaldo, N., & Domenico, M. D. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114215 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“However, there is increasing scientific consensus over the viability of targeted information inoculation strategies as a means for creating large scale psychological resistance against fake news (van der Linden et al., 2020) as a form of ‘pre-bunking ’ rather than debunking.”
Fake news about the COVID-19 pandemic: perception of health professionals and their families
Barreto, M. D. S., Caram, C. D. S., dos Santos, J. L. G., de Souza, R. R., Góes, H. L. D. F., & Marcon, S. S. (2021) · Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP · doi:10.1590/1980-220x-reeusp-2021-0007 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“In addition, psychological inoculation has been a strategy to prevent the damage caused by fake news(22,27).”
BackgroundOliveira, F. B., Haque, A., Mougouei, D., Evans, S., Sichman, J. S., & Singh, M. P. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3150329 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Vaccine hesitancy, misinformation in the era of Covid-19: Lessons from the past
Orsini, D., Bianucci, R., Galassi, F. M., Lippi, D., & Martini, M. (2022) · Ethics Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.jemep.2022.100812 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Pilditch, T. D., Roozenbeek, J., Madsen, J. K., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.211953 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“However, while the principle of cognitive inoculation has been shown to be effective at conferring psychological resistance against misinformation at the individual level, for example in the context of COVID-19 [13], political disinformation [14] and climate change [15], a crucial open question with significant theore…”
BackgroundSelf-citationMaertens, R., Götz, F. M., Golino, H. F., Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Kyrychenko, Y., Kerr, J. R., Stieger, S., McClanahan, W. P., III, Drabot, K., et al. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gk68h · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationA Systematic Literature Review on Fake News in the COVID-19 Pandemic: Can AI Propose a Solution?
Ahmad, T., Lazarte, E. A. A., & Mirjalili, S. (2022) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app122412727 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Zhuo, J., & Harrigan, N. (2023) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2023.06.016 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Sun, J., & Pan, W. (2024) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2024.2346674 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“…a number of solutions have been proposed, including long-term oriented media literacy and health literacy education programs (e.g., Lee & Ramazan, 2021; Moretti et al., 2023), and short-term oriented inoculation (e.g., Van der Linden et al., 2020) or post-correction (e.g., Tully et al., 2020).”
Xue, X., Ma, H., Zhao, Y. C., Zhu, Q., & Song, S. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117136 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Can shared decision making address COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy?
Durand, M., Scalia, P., & Elwyn, G. J. (2021) · BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine · doi:10.1136/bmjebm-2021-111695 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Nowak, B. M., Miedziarek, C., Pełczyński, S., & Rzymski, P. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182212266 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Gwenzi, W., Skirmuntt, E. C., Musvuugwa, T., Teta, C., Halabowski, D., & Rzymski, P. (2022) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103350 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Fake news on Facebook and their impact on supply chain disruption during COVID-19
Hossain, M. A., Chowdhury, M. M. H., Pappas, I. O., Metri, B. A., Hughes, L., & Dwivedi, Y. K. (2022) · Annals of Operations Research · doi:10.1007/s10479-022-05124-1 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“SM fake news has severe adverse effects including misconstrued understandings of the situation and downplay factual information, creating and propagating speculations and chaos, and eventually affecting the effectiveness of containment strategies (Coleman, 2020; Nyilasy, n.d.; van Der Linden et al., 2020).”
BackgroundRaza, S. H., Yousaf, M. T., Zaman, U., Khan, S. W., Core, R. S., & Malik, A. N. (2023) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.01.047 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Scientists, researchers, and pharmaceutical firms worldwide have developed coronavirus vaccines, and more than a dozen vaccines have been approved [3,4].”
Gu, C., & Feng, Y. (2021) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-021-00261-8 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Although media literacy initiatives are typically expensive to develop, slow to roll out, and reactive rather than proactive (Linden et al., 2020), the present study provided an effective audience-centered approach to develop SIL.”
BackgroundWho falls for fake news? Psychological and clinical profiling evidence of fake news consumers
Escolà‐Gascón, Á., Dagnall, N., Denovan, A., Drinkwater, K. G., & Bosch, M. D. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111893 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
- Authors
- van der Linden, S., Roozenbeek, J., & Compton, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Dartmouth College (US)
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2020-10-23
- Volume
- 11
- Pages
- 566790-566790
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7644779
- OpenAlex
- W3094229442
- Cited by
- 632
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 70 · 2025: 71 · 2024: 127 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 143 · 2021: 98 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 121.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Communication › Communication and COVID-19 Impact
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Academic Publishing and Open Access
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, misinformation, infodemic, fake news, psychological inoculation, prebunking, preventive health behavior, social media, behavioral interventions, SARS-CoV-2
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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