Gene expression in human brain implicates sexually dimorphic pathways in autism spectrum disorders
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Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is more prevalent in males, and the mechanisms behind this sex-differential risk are not fully understood. Two competing, but not mutually exclusive, hypotheses are that ASD risk genes are sex-differentially regulated, or alternatively, that they interact with characteristic sexually dimorphic pathways. Here we characterized sexually dimorphic gene expression in multiple data sets from neurotypical adult and prenatal human neocortical tissue, and evaluated ASD risk genes for evidence of sex-biased expression. We find no evidence for systematic sex-differential expression of ASD risk genes. Instead, we observe that genes expressed at higher levels in males are significantly enriched for genes upregulated in post-mortem autistic brain, including astrocyte and microglia markers. This suggests that it is not sex-differential regulation of ASD risk genes, but rather naturally occurring sexually dimorphic processes, potentially including neuron–glial interactions, that modulate the impact of risk variants and contribute to the sex-skewed prevalence of ASD.
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For ASD, evidence from genetics and functional genomics points to protective factors in females that involve brain function and structure.
“For example, in ASD, genetic and functional genomic evidence suggests the presence of female protective factors based in brain function and structure (Robinson et al., 2013; Werling and Geschwind, 2013; Werling et al., 2016)”
From Defining the genetic, genomic, cellular, and diagnostic architectures of psychiatric disorders (2019) · cites this paper as Werling et al., 2016
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Self-citationSex Hormones Regulate SHANK Expression
Berkel, S., Eltokhi, A., Fröhlich, H., Porras-Gonzalez, D., Rafiullah, R., Sprengel, R., & Rappold, G. A. (2018) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2018.00337 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Sokolowski, M., & Wasserman, D. (2020) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.06.002 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Solving for X: Evidence for sex‐specific autism biomarkers across multiple transcriptomic studies
Lee, S. C., Quinn, T. P., Lai, J., Kong, S. W., Hertz‐Picciotto, I., Glatt, S. J., Crowley, T. M., Venkatesh, S., & Nguyen, T. (2019) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32701 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Putative contributions of the sex chromosome proteins SOX3 and SRY to neurodevelopmental disorders
Tahira, A. C., Barbosa, A. R., Feltrin, A. S., Gastaldi, V. D., de Toledo, V. H. C., de Carvalho Pereira, J. G., Lisboa, B. C. G., de Souza Reis, V. N., dos Santos, A. C. F., Maschietto, M., et al. (2019) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32704 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
- Authors
- Werling, D. M., Parikshak, N. N., & Geschwind, D. H.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Geschwind, Daniel H.
- Venue
- Nature Communications
- Published
- 2016-02-19
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 10717-10717
- ISSN
- 2041-1723 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4762891
- OpenAlex
- W2419599148
- Cited by
- 296
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 32 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 14
- FWCI
- 18.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Nature Communications (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh094714-04)
- National Institute of Mental Health (5R01MH094714, F31MH093086, R01-MH094714, F30MH099886, R01MH100027, T32MH073526, R37MH060233, RC2MH089921)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetics and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, sex differences, sexually dimorphic gene expression, ASD risk genes, human neocortex, astrocytes, microglia, neuron-glia interactions, sex-biased gene expression, postmortem brain
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Adolescent, Adult, Brain, Female, Humans, Male, Sex Factors, Gene Expression, Young Adult, Transcriptome
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