Aberrant luminal progenitors as the candidate target population for basal tumor development in BRCA1 mutation carriers
Abstract
Basal-like breast cancers arising in women carrying mutations in the BRCA1 gene, encoding the tumor suppressor protein BRCA1, are thought to develop from the mammary stem cell. To explore early cellular changes that occur in BRCA1 mutation carriers, we have prospectively isolated distinct epithelial subpopulations from normal mammary tissue and preneoplastic specimens from individuals heterozygous for a BRCA1 mutation. We describe three epithelial subsets including basal stem/progenitor, luminal progenitor and mature luminal cells. Unexpectedly, we found that breast tissue from BRCA1 mutation carriers harbors an expanded luminal progenitor population that shows factor-independent growth in vitro. Moreover, gene expression profiling revealed that breast tissue heterozygous for a BRCA1 mutation and basal breast tumors were more similar to normal luminal progenitor cells than any other subset, including the stem cell-enriched population. The c-KIT tyrosine kinase receptor (encoded by KIT) emerged as a key marker of luminal progenitor cells and was more highly expressed in BRCA1-associated preneoplastic tissue and tumors. Our findings suggest that an aberrant luminal progenitor population is a target for transformation in BRCA1-associated basal tumors .
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Roast is especially useful for finding similarities in gene expression patterns between different expression studies.
“It is therefore especially useful for finding similarities in gene expression patterns between different expression studies (57,59–61) (Figure 4C).”
From limma powers differential expression analyses for RNA-sequencing and microarray studies (2015) · cites this paper as [60]
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BackgroundResultInfluentialClinical implications of the intrinsic molecular subtypes of breast cancer
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“14 This has been emphasized in a recent study, which suggested that at least a subgroup of basal-like breast cancers may originate from luminal progenitors rather than basalsmyoepithelial cells of the breast”
BackgroundRicardo, S. A. V., Vieira, A. F., Gerhard, R., Leitão, D., Pinto, R., Cameselle‐Teijeiro, J., Milanezi, F., Schmitt, F. C., & Paredes, J. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Pathology · doi:10.1136/jcp.2011.090456 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
“The described CD44 + CD24 (cid:1) /low and ALDH1+ CSC phenotypes seem to identify breast CSC with distinct levels of differentiation.”
BackgroundPhenotypic Plasticity: Driver of Cancer Initiation, Progression, and Therapy Resistance
Gupta, P. B., Pastushenko, I., Skibinski, A., Blanpain, C., & Kuperwasser, C. (2018) · Cell stem cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2018.11.011 · Cited by 596 · see citing works
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BackgroundWnt signaling in breast cancer: biological mechanisms, challenges and opportunities
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Keeping abreast of the mammary epithelial hierarchy and breast tumorigenesisPreprint
Visvader, J. E. (2009) · Genes & Development · doi:10.1101/gad.1849509 · Cited by 568 · see citing works
“For example, CD24 is a pan-epithelial marker in the mouse mammary gland, but not in human breast tissue where it serves exclusively as a luminal marker (Shackleton et al. 2006; Stingl et al. 2006; Raouf et al. 2008; Lim et al. 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialUnderstanding cancer stem cell heterogeneity and plasticity
Tang, D. G. (2012) · Cell Research · doi:10.1038/cr.2012.13 · Cited by 559 · see citing works
ROAST: rotation gene set tests for complex microarray experiments
Wu, D., Lim, E., Vaillant, F., Asselin-Labat, M.-L., Visvader, J. E., & Smyth, G. K. (2010) · Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btq401 · Cited by 560 · see citing works
Mammary stem cells and the differentiation hierarchy: current status and perspectivesPreprint
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“For instance, it has been found that CFCs within the luminal cell populations are restricted in their fate (Eirew et al. 2008; Lim et al. 2009), yet others have reported that these cells exhibit multilineage potential in vitro (Deng et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialMalignant Glioma: Lessons from Genomics, Mouse Models, and Stem Cells
Chen, J., McKay, R. M., & Parada, L. F. (2012) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.03.009 · Cited by 526 · see citing works
“Breast cancers with BRCA1 mutations usually show basal celllike marker expression even though they arise from luminal progenitor cells (Lim et al., 2009).”
BackgroundStudy, A. C., Bojesen, S. E., Study, A. O. C., (GENICA), G. E. I. A. B. C., (SWE-BRCA), S. B. C. S., (EMBRACE), E. S. O. B. &. B. M. C., (GEMO), G. M. O. C. R. I. B. M. C., Pooley, K. A., Johnatty, S. E., Beesley, J., et al. (2013) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.2566 · Cited by 522 · see citing works
Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor GenesPreprint
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“This highlights the haplo-insufficiency phenotype of BRCA1 in mammary epithelial differentiation (Lim et al. 2009).”
BackgroundIn situ identification of bipotent stem cells in the mammary gland
Rios, A. C., Fu, N. Y., Lindeman, G. J., & Visvader, J. E. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature12948 · Cited by 511 · see citing works
Targeting breast stem cells with the cancer preventive compounds curcumin and piperine
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“Clonal expansion of stem cell populations through dysregulated self-renewal is hypothesized to be an early step in carcinogenesis [3].”
BackgroundCellular Heterogeneity and Molecular Evolution in Cancer
Almendro, V., Marusyk, A., & Polyák, K. (2012) · Annual Review of Pathology Mechanisms of Disease · doi:10.1146/annurev-pathol-020712-163923 · Cited by 491 · see citing works
“Gene-expression profiling has also been used to identify similarities between normal and cancer cell subpopulations, which predicted the probable cell of origin of some tumors (71).”
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“Consistent with this observation, Lim et al demonstrated that basal-like cancers display a phenotype consistent with that of luminal progenitor cells and may originate from these cells, rather than from normal basal cells of the breast [69].”
ResultKaraayvaz, M., Cristea, S., Gillespie, S. M., Patel, A. P., Mylvaganam, R., Luo, C. C., Specht, M. C., Bernstein, B., Franziska Michor, A., & Ellisen, L. W. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06052-0 · Cited by 481 · see citing works
Histological, molecular and functional subtypes of breast cancers
Malhotra, G. K., Zhao, X., Band, H., & Band, V. (2010) · Cancer Biology & Therapy · doi:10.4161/cbt.10.10.13879 · Cited by 476 · see citing works
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“Both cancer cell clusters displayed a strong expression signature characteristic of normal LP cells, while HER2 + tumors showed a broad distribution of cancer cells with substantial molecular homology to normal breast ML cells, in parallel with earlier findings (Lim et al, 2009) (Fig EV3A).”
InfluentialBiology of breast cancer in young women
Azim, H. A., & Partridge, A. H. (2014) · Breast Cancer Research · doi:10.1186/s13058-014-0427-5 · Cited by 475 · see citing works
“Patients with BRCA1 mutations are commonly diagnosed with basal-like tumors [23]; earlier work suggested that luminal progenitors appear to be the cell of origin of these tumors and are regulated by c-kit [24].”
BackgroundDissecting the Heterogeneity of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer
Metzger, O., Tutt, A. N. J., de Azambuja, E., Saini, K. S., Viale, G., Loi, S., Bradbury, I., Bliss, J. M., Azim, H. A., Ellis, P., et al. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1200/jco.2011.38.2010 · Cited by 464 · see citing works
The molecular pathology of breast cancer progression
Bombonati, A., & Sgroi, D. C. (2010) · The Journal of Pathology · doi:10.1002/path.2808 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
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Epigenetics in cancer stem cells
Toh, T. B., Lim, J. J., & Chow, E. K. (2017) · Molecular Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12943-017-0596-9 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
“in BRCA1 mutation-associated breast tumors, where the authors prospectively isolated distinct subpopulations of normal and tumorigenic epithelial cells from BRCA1 mutation heterozygous individuals and found that luminal progenitors were highly represented in BRCA1 mutationassociated breast tumors, more than the stem c…”
BackgroundTumor initiation and early tumorigenesis: molecular mechanisms and interventional targets
Zhang, S., Xiao, X., Yi, Y., Wang, X., Zhu, L., Shen, Y., Lin, D., & Wu, C. H. (2024) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-024-01848-7 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
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“of origin of BRCA1-associated and "basal-like" tumors were probably luminal progenitor cells rather than the stem-cell enriched population with c-kit identified as a key marker (44).”
BackgroundPark, S. Y., Lee, H. E., Li, H., Shipitsin, M. V., Gelman, R. S., & Polyák, K. (2010) · Clinical Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-09-1532 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
“cell genes Vimentin 2 (18) 2 (33) 1 (7) 3 (75) NSAA 4 (10) 1 (14) 4 (44) NSAA”
BackgroundUnravelling the complexity of metastasis — molecular understanding and targeted therapies
Sethi, N. S., & Kang, Y. (2011) · Nature reviews. Cancer · doi:10.1038/nrc3125 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
“In a different, but not mutually exclusive, scenario, the same oncogenic insults may take place in different cell lineages, such as in basal versus luminal epithelial cell”
Distinct contributions of partial and full EMT to breast cancer malignancy
Lüönd, F., Sugiyama, N., Bill, R., Bornes, L., Hager, C., Tang, F., Santacroce, N., Beisel, C., Ivánek, R., Bürglin, T. R., et al. (2021) · Developmental Cell · doi:10.1016/j.devcel.2021.11.006 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
Basal Breast Cancer: A Complex and Deadly Molecular Subtype
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“BRCA1 breast cancers derive from an ER-negative luminal progenitor [71, 72].”
BackgroundGenetic Predisposition Directs Breast Cancer Phenotype by Dictating Progenitor Cell Fate
Proia, T. A., Keller, P. J., Gupta, P. B., Klebba, I., Jones, A. D., Sedic, M., Gilmore, H. L., Tung, N., Naber, S. P., Schnitt, S. J., et al. (2011) · Cell stem cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2010.12.007 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
“…identified four populations of epithelial cells: EpCAMhi/ CD49f mature luminal cells, EpCAMhi/CD49f+ luminal progenitor cells, EpCAMlow/CD49f+ basal/myoepithelial (ME) cells, and EpCAM /CD49f+ basal progenitor cells (Figure 3D; Figure S2; Keller et al., 2010; Lim et al., 2009; Eirew et al., 2008).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialProfiling human breast epithelial cells using single cell RNA sequencing identifies cell diversity
Nguyen, Q., Pervolarakis, N., Blake, K., Ma, D., Davis, R. T., James, N., Phung, A. T., Willey, E., Kumar, R., Jabart, E., et al. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-04334-1 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Therapeutic Implications of Cellular Heterogeneity and Plasticity in Breast Cancer
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“Other pathways that play important roles in the regulation of CSCs within this TN subtype include Wnt (King et al., 2012), Notch (Al-Hussaini et al., 2011), Hedgehog (Liu et al., 2006), and IL-8-CXCR1 (Rody et al., 2011).”
BackgroundGroße-Wilde, A., d’Hérouël, A. F., McIntosh, E., Ertaylan, G., Skupin, A., Kuestner, R. E., del Sol, A., Walters, K., & Huang, S. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0126522 · Cited by 367 · see citing works
“Evidence is accumulating that all breast cancer cells are derived from a common luminal stem-like cell population that gives rise to both luminal and basal tumors [5–8].”
Towards targeting the breast cancer immune microenvironment
Harris, M., Savas, P., Virassamy, B., O’Malley, M. M. R., Kay, J., Mueller, S. N., Mackay, L., Salgado, R., & Loi, S. (2024) · Nature Reviews. Cancer · doi:10.1038/s41568-024-00714-6 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
“Claudin-low tumours, which resemble TNBC but show a more stem-like phenotype, share a similar transcriptome to mammary stem cells 7,276 , whereas the basal-like subtype has a gene expression profile more akin to luminal progenitor cells 277,278 .”
Differentiation dynamics of mammary epithelial cells revealed by single-cell RNA sequencing
Bach, K., Pensa, S., Grzelak, M., Hadfield, J., Adams, D. J., Marioni, J. C., & Khaled, W. T. (2017) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02001-5 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
Targeting breast cancer stem cells.
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“However, recent transcriptome studies have revealed that molecular signatures of cancer cells do not always match their histological appearance (Lim et al., 2009).”
May, C. D., Sphyris, N., Evans, K. W., Werden, S. J., Guo, W., & Mani, S. A. (2011) · Breast Cancer Research · doi:10.1186/bcr2789 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Cancer stem cell in breast cancer therapeutic resistance
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PIK3CAH1047R induces multipotency and multi-lineage mammary tumours
Koren, S., Reavie, L. B., Couto, J. P., Silva, D. D., Stadler, M. B., Roloff, T. C., Britschgi, A., Eichlisberger, T., Kohler, H., Aina, O. H., et al. (2015) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature14669 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
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“…DNA (dsDNA), BRCA2 specifically promotes the productive assembly of RAD51 filaments onto ssDNA, which is critical for strand invasion of a homologous DNA, while preventing the nonproductive formation of RAD51 filaments onto dsDNA ( Jensen et al. 2010, Liu et al. 2010, Thorslund et al. 2010).”
BackgroundPhenotypic and functional characterisation of the luminal cell hierarchy of the mammary gland
Shehata, M., Teschendorff, A., Sharp, G., Novcic, N., Russell, I. A., Avril, S., Prater, M., Eirew, P., Caldas, C., Watson, C. J., et al. (2012) · Breast Cancer Research · doi:10.1186/bcr3334 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
“The LP population has previously been shown to have a gene expression signature resembling that of basal-like breast tumours, while the NCL cells resemble Luminal A/B tumours [32].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMolecular subtypes of breast cancer are associated with characteristic DNA methylation patterns
Holm, K., Hegardt, C., Staaf, J., Vallon‐Christersson, J., Jonsson, G. G., Olsson, H. L., Borg, Å., & Ringnér, M. (2010) · Breast Cancer Research · doi:10.1186/bcr2590 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
“Moreover, polycomb proteins such as EZH2 are involved in stem cell maintenance [6], in line with findings that basal-like breast cancer has a more stem cell-like phenotype [21,41].”
RANK ligand as a potential target for breast cancer prevention in BRCA1-mutation carriers
Nolan, E., Vaillant, F., Branstetter, D. G., Pal, B., Giner, G., Whitehead, L. W., Lok, S. W., Mann, G. B., Rohrbach, K., Huang, L., et al. (2016) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.4118 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
A new genome‐driven integrated classification of breast cancer and its implications
Dawson, S., Rueda, O. M., Aparicio, S. A. J. R., & Caldas, C. (2013) · The EMBO Journal · doi:10.1038/emboj.2013.19 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
“Importantly, Claudin-low/mesenchymal tumours appear to be enriched with cells showing distinct biological properties associated with mammary stem cells and tumour initiating potential (Hennessy et al , 2009; Lim et al , 2009; Lehmann et al , 2011; Bruna et al , 2012).”
GATA3 in development and cancer differentiation: Cells GATA have it!
Chou, J., Provot, S., & Werb, Z. (2009) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.21943 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
“Interestingly, luminal progenitors have also been suggested to be the candidate target cell population for basal tumor development in BRCA1 mutation carriers (Lim et al., 2009).”
BackgroundBlick, T., Hugo, H. J., Widodo, E., Waltham, M. C., Pinto, C., Mani, S. A., Weinberg, R. A., Neve, R. M., Lenburg, M. E., & Thompson, E. W. (2010) · Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia · doi:10.1007/s10911-010-9175-z · Cited by 291 · see citing works
“constitutively mesenchymal undergoing MET-like changes in order to populate the mammary gland? Do basal-like breast cancers represent neoplastic mammary stem cells that do not generate luminal progeny [78]? Recent reports by the Visvader/Lindeman group show that the basal-like phenotype of BRCA1-associated breast canc…”
BackgroundCancer Suppression by the Chromosome Custodians, BRCA1 and BRCA2
Venkitaraman, A. R. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1252230 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
A refined molecular taxonomy of breast cancer
Guedj, M., Marisa, L., de Reyniès, A., Orsetti, B., Schiappa, R., Bibeau, F., MacGrogan, G. M., Lerebours, F., Finetti, P., Longy, M., et al. (2011) · Oncogene · doi:10.1038/onc.2011.301 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
“…mammary epithelial cell hierarchy To test whether our subgroups relate to distinct cells of origins in the mammary gland, we took advantage of 3 published expression profiling datasets of sorted normal mammary epithelial cell subpopulations (Lim et al., 2009; Pece et al., 2010; Raouf et al., 2008).”
BackgroundResultBreast Tumor Heterogeneity: Source of Fitness, Hurdle for Therapy
Koren, S., & Bentires‐Alj, M. (2015) · Molecular Cell · doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2015.10.031 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
“Each cell type in the mammary gland hierarchy has its own signaling, transcriptional, and epigenetic profile that determines cell identity (Kendrick et al., 2008; Lim et al., 2010; Pal et al., 2013).”
BackgroundLehmann, B. D., Colaprico, A., Silva, T. C., Chen, J., An, H., Ban, Y. J., Huang, H., Wang, L. H.-C., James, J. L., Balko, J. M., et al. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-26502-6 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Patient-derived xenograft models of breast cancer and their predictive power
Whittle, J. R., Lewis, M. T., Lindeman, G. J., & Visvader, J. E. (2015) · Breast Cancer Research · doi:10.1186/s13058-015-0523-1 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
“More recently, other subtypes have been defined, notably the claudin-low tumors, which are predominantly triple-negative and exhibit mesenchymal features [2] and a stem cell-like expression signature [2,6].”
BackgroundKung, H.-N., Marks, J. R., & Chi, J.-T. (2011) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002229 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“cellular origins and metabolic features for different breast cancer types [7,12,13].”
BackgroundGusterson, B. A., & Stein, T. (2012) · Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2012.03.013 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
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Tracing the cellular origin of cancer
Blanpain, C. (2013) · Nature Cell Biology · doi:10.1038/ncb2657 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Understanding the Dual Nature of CD44 in Breast Cancer Progression
Louderbough, J. M., & Schroeder, J. A. (2011) · Molecular Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-11-0156 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
“Our current understanding of the hierarchy of cancer progression suggests that basal subtypes arise from luminal progenitors (114).”
BackgroundDekkers, J. F., van Vliet, E. J., Sachs, N., Rosenbluth, J. M., Kopper, O., Rebel, H. G., Wehrens, E. J., Piani, C., Visvader, J. E., Veríssimo, C. S., et al. (2021) · Nature Protocols · doi:10.1038/s41596-020-00474-1 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Progesterone and Breast Cancer
Trabert, B. L., Sherman, M. E., Kannan, N., & Stanczyk, F. Z. (2019) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/endrev/bnz001 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models in basic and translational breast cancer research
Dobrolecki, L. E., Airhart, S., Alférez, D., Aparicio, S. A. J. R., Behbod, F., Bentires‐Alj, M., Brisken, C., Bult, C. J., Cai, S., Clarke, R. B., et al. (2016) · Cancer and Metastasis Reviews · doi:10.1007/s10555-016-9653-x · Cited by 261 · see citing works
“Claudin-low tumors are predominantly TNBC, with comparatively low expression of claudins 3, 4, and 7 [14], enrichment for mesenchymal markers [5], and enrichment of a stem cell-like (CD44/CD24) gene expression signature [5, 15, 16].”
Stem Cells and the Differentiation Hierarchy in Mammary Gland Development
Fu, N. Y., Nolan, E., Lindeman, G. J., & Visvader, J. E. (2019) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00040.2018 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
The Role of Progesterone Receptors in Breast Cancer
Li, Z., Wei, H., Li, S., Wu, P., & Mao, X. (2022) · Drug Design Development and Therapy · doi:10.2147/dddt.s336643 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
“Is it the essential step from hyperplasia to ductal carcinoma in situ or invasive breast cancer? Is it the essential process for hormone-negative breast carcinogenesis? Previous research indicated that breast cancer with the harmful breast cancer 1 (BRCA1) variant is more likely to be hormone receptor negative, and BR…”
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Three differentiation states risk-stratify bladder cancer into distinct subtypes
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“From this group, we focused on CD49f (ITGA6), as this marker has been reported to be coexpressed with KRT14 and is down-regulated during differentiation in various normal epithelial tissues and cancer types (26, 27).”
BackgroundGatza, M. L., Silva, G. O., Parker, J. S., Fan, C., & Perou, C. M. (2014) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.3073 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
- Authors
- kConFab, Lim, E., Vaillant, F., Wu, D., Forrest, N. C., Pal, B., Hart, A. H., Asselin-Labat, M.-L., Gyorki, D. E., Ward, T., Partanen, A., Feleppa, F., Huschtscha, L. I., Thorne, H. J., Fox, S. B., Yan, M., French, J. D., Brown, M. A., Smyth, G. K., Visvader, J. E., & Lindeman, G. J.
- Affiliations
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research (AU)
- The Royal Melbourne Hospital (AU)
- Children's Medical Research Institute (AU)
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre (AU)
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Visvader, Jane E
- Lindeman, Geoffrey J
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Medicine
- Published
- 2009-08
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 907-913
- ISSN
- 1078-8956 (ISSN-L)
- 1546-170X
- OpenAlex
- W2137162822
- Cited by
- 1,492
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 80 · 2023: 94 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 86 · 2020: 71 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 81 · 2016: 84 · 2015: 98 · 2014: 117 · 2013: 112 · 2012: 133
- FWCI
- 72.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › BRCA gene mutations in cancer
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Cancer Cells and Metastasis
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cancer Research › Breast Cancer Treatment Studies
- Keywords
- BRCA1 mutation carriers, basal-like breast cancer, luminal progenitor cells, mammary stem cells, KIT expression, tumor suppressor, gene expression profiling, breast cancer predisposition
- MeSH terms
- Breast Neoplasms, Cell Transformation, Neoplastic, Cells, Cultured, Female, Heterozygote, Humans, Models, Biological, Mutation, Precancerous Conditions, Receptors, Progesterone, Stem Cells, Neoplastic Stem Cells, Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic, Genes, BRCA1, Gene Expression Profiling, Mammary Glands, Human
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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