Cited by 1,419SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 ResearchCOVID-19 Clinical Research StudiesSARS-CoV-2 detection and testing

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Longitudinal observation and decline of neutralizing antibody responses in the three months following SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans

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Seow, Jeffrey, Graham, Carl, Merrick, Blair, Acors, Sam, Pickering, Suzanne, Steel, Kathryn J. A., Hemmings, Oliver, O’Byrne, Aoife, Kouphou, Neophytos, Galao, Rui Pedro, Betancor, Gilberto, Wilson, Harry D., Signell, Adrian W., Winstone, Helena, Kerridge, Claire, Huettner, Isabella, Jimenez-Guardeño, Jose M., Lista, Maria Jose, Temperton, Nigel, Snell, Luke B., Bisnauthsing, Karen, Moore, Amelia, Green, Adrian, Martinez, Lauren, Stokes, Brielle, Honey, Johanna, Izquierdo-Barras, Alba, Arbane, Gill, Patel, Amita, Tan, Mark Kia Ik, O’Connell, Lorcan, O’Hara, Geraldine, MacMahon, Eithne, Douthwaite, Sam, Nebbia, Gaia, Batra, Rahul, Martinez-Nunez, Rocio, Shankar-Hari, Manu, Edgeworth, Jonathan D., Neil, Stuart J. D., Malim, Michael H., Doores, Katie J.·2020·Nature Microbiology

DOI 10.1038/s41564-020-00813-8PMC PMC7610833

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Abstract

Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 can be detected in most infected individuals 10-15 d after the onset of COVID-19 symptoms. However, due to the recent emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in the human population, it is not known how long antibody responses will be maintained or whether they will provide protection from reinfection. Using sequential serum samples collected up to 94 d post onset of symptoms (POS) from 65 individuals with real-time quantitative PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection, we show seroconversion (immunoglobulin (Ig)M, IgA, IgG) in >95% of cases and neutralizing antibody responses when sampled beyond 8 d POS. We show that the kinetics of the neutralizing antibody response is typical of an acute viral infection, with declining neutralizing antibody titres observed after an initial peak, and that the magnitude of this peak is dependent on disease severity. Although some individuals with high peak infective dose (ID 50 > 10,000) maintained neutralizing antibody titres >1,000 at >60 d POS, some with lower peak ID 50 had neutralizing antibody titres approaching baseline within the follow-up period. A similar decline in neutralizing antibody titres was observed in a cohort of 31 seropositive healthcare workers. The present study has important implications when considering widespread serological testing and antibody protection against reinfection with SARS-CoV-2, and may suggest that vaccine boosters are required to provide long-lasting protection.

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Background
Clinical and immunological assessment of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections
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Background
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SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in the Southern Region of New Zealand, 2020
Craigie, A., McGregor, R., Whitcombe, A. L., Carlton, L. H., Harte, D., Sutherland, M., Parry, M. F., Smit, E., McAuliffe, G. N., Ussher, J. E., et al. (2021) · Pathology · doi:10.1016/j.pathol.2021.04.001 · Cited by 9
“001 evidence that antibody levels correlate with disease severity.(23) Secondly, a median of 14 weeks (range 11–17 weeks) had lapsed between symptom onset and serum collection, and N protein antibodies have been reported to decline relatively quickly post-infection.”
Background
Serological assessment of SARS-CoV-2 infection during the first wave of the pandemic in Louisville Kentucky
Hamorsky, K. T., Bushau-Sprinkle, A. M., Kitterman, K. T., Corman, J. M., DeMarco, J. K., Keith, R. J., Bhatnagar, A., Fuqua, J. L., Lasnik, A. B., Joh, J. J., et al. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-97423-z · Cited by 8
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“Early reports have indicated that nAbs acquired upon infection could disappear within the following 3 months [6]; however, a series of recent reports indicate that they are maintained for longer durations [8, 20– 23].”
Background
Impairment of T cells' antiviral and anti-inflammation immunities may be critical to death from COVID-19
Zhang, L., Li, R., Song, G., Scholes, G. D., & She, Z.-S. (2021) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.211606 · Cited by 8
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COVID-19 IgG/IgM patterns, early IL-6 elevation and long-term radiological sequelae in 75 patients hospitalized due to interstitial pneumonia followed up from 3 to 12 months
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“However, it has been reported that few days POS some individuals only displayed neutralizing IgM or IgA activity, thus suggesting that the capacity of these latter antibodies could be involved in virus neutralization even in absence of IgG [7, 13].”
Background
Persistence of SARS-CoV-2 total immunoglobulins in a series of convalescent plasma and blood donors
Martín, M. C., Jimenez, A., Ortega, N., Parrado, A., Page, I., Gonzalez, M., & Blanco-Peris, L. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0264124 · Cited by 9
“Those donors who would wane exhibited significantly lower initial ODs as analysing total antibodies of their first donation (1.5 vs. 74.4; p = 0.009, Fig 2B).”
ResultInfluential
A rapid antibody screening haemagglutination test for predicting immunity to SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern
Ertesvåg, N. U., Xiao, J. H., Zhou, F., Ljostveit, S., Sandnes, H. H., Lartey, S. L., Sævik, M., Hansen, L., Madsen, A., Mohn, K. G.-I., et al. (2022) · Communications Medicine · doi:10.1038/s43856-022-00091-x · Cited by 8
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Limited Correlation between SARS-CoV-2 Serologic Assays for Identification of High-Titer COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma Using FDA Thresholds
Larkey, N. E., Ewaisha, R., Lasho, M. A., Roforth, M. M., Granger, D., Jerde, C. R., Wu, L. L., Gorsh, A. P., Klassen, S. A., Senefeld, J. W., et al. (2022) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.01154-22 · Cited by 9
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“The above validates the importance of a booster dose prescription in immunosuppressed patients,(32,33) especially in dialysis patients, in whom one out of every five patients has an attenuated immune response.(30,34,35) The average age of our patients vaccinated with booster doses was 62.”
Background
Coronavirus spike protein-specific antibodies indicate frequent infections and reinfections in infancy and among BNT162b2-vaccinated healthcare workers
Kolehmainen, P., Huttunen, M., Iakubovskaia, A., Maljanen, S., Tauriainen, S., Yatkin, E., Pasternack, A. H., Naves, R. A., Toivonen, L., Tähtinen, P. A., et al. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-35471-3 · Cited by 12
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Water-soluble tocopherol derivatives inhibit SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerasePreprint
Pacl, H. T., Tipper, J. L., Sevalkar, R. R., Crouse, A. B., Crowder, C. M., Ahmad, S., Ahmad, A. M., Holder, G. D., Kuhlman, C. J., Chinta, K. C., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.07.13.449251 · Cited by 11
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Britzke, T., Halwe, N. J., Ulrich, L., Breithaupt, A., Barut, G. T., Wylezich, C., Ebert, N., Trüeb, B. S., Thiel, V., Hoffmann, D., et al. (2025) · npj Vaccines · doi:10.1038/s41541-025-01165-2 · Cited by 9
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Neutralizing Antibody Responses to SARS-CoV-2 in Korean Patients Who Have Recovered from COVID-19
Kim, Y., Bae, J., Bae, S., Hwang, S., Kwon, K. T., Chang, H., Lee, W. K., Cui, C., Lee, G. E., Kim, S., et al. (2021) · Yonsei Medical Journal · doi:10.3349/ymj.2021.62.7.584 · Cited by 8
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Alhajjat, A. M., Redden, C. R., Langereis, M. M., Papastefan, S. T., Ito, J. A. S., Ott, K. C., Turner, L. E., Kang, H. K., & Shaaban, A. F. (2022) · Immunobiology · doi:10.1016/j.imbio.2022.152304 · Cited by 9
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Al-Hatamleh, M. A. I., Abusalah, M. A. H., Hatmal, M. M., Alshaer, W., Ahmad, S., Mohd-Zahid, M. H., Rahman, E. N. S. E. A., Yean, C. Y., Alias, I. Z., Uskoković, V., et al. (2022) · Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jtumed.2022.11.007 · Cited by 8
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Becza, N., Liu, Z., Chepke, J., Gao, X., Lehmann, P., & Kirchenbaum, G. A. (2024) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-3690-9_13 · Cited by 8
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“11 Conversely, assessments performed in daily clinical settings can conveniently detect IgG antibodies against RBD in routine laboratory settings.”
Background
Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children in February 2020 and Implications of Genomic Sequencing for SARS-CoV-2
Parsons, E. L., Timlin, M., Starr, C. R., Fries, A. C., Wells, R., Studer, M. B., & Sainato, R. J. (2020) · Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society · doi:10.1093/jpids/piaa167 · Cited by 8
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Background
A large-scale computational screen identifies strong potential inhibitors for disrupting SARS-CoV-2 S-protein and human ACE2 interaction
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Background
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Background
A Recombinant Subunit Vaccine Induces a Potent, Broadly Neutralizing, and Durable Antibody Response in Macaques against the SARS-CoV-2 P.1 (Gamma) Variant
To, A., Wong, T. A. S., Lieberman, M. M., Thompson, K. S., Ball, A. H., Pessaint, L., Greenhouse, J. J., Daham, N., Cook, A., Narvaez, B., et al. (2022) · ACS Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1021/acsinfecdis.1c00600 · Cited by 8
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Semenova, E. V., Pavliuk, V. V., Uvarova, M. A., & Иванов, А. В. (2022) · Medical Immunology (Russia) · doi:10.15789/1563-0625-foh-2452 · Cited by 11
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Lewin, A., Serres, G. D., Grégoire, Y., Perreault, J., Drouin, M., Fournier, M., Tremblay, T., Beaudoin, J., Boivin, A., Goyette, G., et al. (2022) · Canadian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.17269/s41997-022-00622-y · Cited by 8
“…following symptom onset (Anand et al., 2021; Beaudoin-Bussières et al., 2020; Masiá et al., 2021; Perreault et al., 2020; Prévost et al., 2020; Seow et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020), so that some previously infected donors might have transitioned from a seropositive to a seronegative state…”
Background
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Sangaletti, P., Doe, J., Gatti, A. M., Arvay, C. G., Giuliani, L., & Lettner, H. (2022) · International Journal of Vaccine Theory Practice and Research · doi:10.56098/ijvtpr.v2i1.34 · Cited by 8
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Eyran, T., Vaisman‐Mentesh, A., Taussig, D., Dror, Y., Aizik, L., Kigel, A., Rosenstein, S., Bahar, Y., Ini, D., Tur‐Kaspa, R., et al. (2022) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1010569 · Cited by 8
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Background
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Long-COVID fatigue is not predicted by pre-pandemic plasma IL-6 levels in mild COVID-19
Freidin, M. B., Cheetham, N. J., Duncan, E. L., Steves, C. J., Doores, K. J., Malim, M. H., Rossi, N., Lord, J. M., Franks, P. W., Borsini, A., et al. (2023) · Inflammation Research · doi:10.1007/s00011-023-01722-2 · Cited by 8
“html) to assign natural COVID-19 infection status from the results of swab antigen tests; and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) anti-Nucleocapsid (anti-N) and anti-Spike (antiS) Roche antibody tests [16] performed at both King’s College London and 3rd-party laboratories as described previously [17].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies: Comparison of Enzyme Immunoassay, Surrogate Neutralization and Virus Neutralization Test
Vilibić‐Čavlek, T., Bogdanić, M., Borko, E., Hruškar, Ž., Zilic, D., Ferenc, T., Tabain, I., Barbić, L., Ferenc, M. V., Ferenčak, I., et al. (2023) · Antibodies · doi:10.3390/antib12020035 · Cited by 9
“Therefore, the sampling time is an important factor that should be used into account for determining protective immunity [16,22,23].”
Background
Dynamics of anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibody responses following breakthrough infection and the predicted protective efficacy: A longitudinal community-based population study in China
Yan, X., Zhao, X., Du, Y., Wang, H., Liu, L., Wang, Q., Liu, J., & Wei, S. (2024) · International Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2024.107075 · Cited by 8
Estimating the Percentage of a Population Infected with SARS-CoV-2 Using the Number of Reported Deaths: A Policy Planning Tool
Feikin, D. R., Widdowson, M., & Mulholland, K. (2020) · Pathogens · doi:10.3390/pathogens9100838 · Cited by 7
Serological Surveillance of COVID-19 Hospitalized Patients in Réunion Island (France) Revealed that Specific Immunoglobulin G Are Rapidly Vanishing in Severe Cases
Dobi, A., Frumence, É., Rakoto, M. L., Lebeau, G., Vagner, D., Anne-Laure, S. S., Giry, C., Septembre‐Malaterre, A., Jaffar‐Bandjee, M., Raffray, L., et al. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm9123847 · Cited by 8
“Two studies conducted on SARS-CoV-2 positive individuals in England revealed a significant decline of neutralizing antibody responses in the three months following infection [17,18].”
Result
An evaluation of 4 commercial assays for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in a predominantly mildly symptomatic low prevalence Australian population
Wehrhahn, M. C., Brown, S. J., Newcombe, J. P., Chong, S., Evans, J., Figtree, M. C., Hainke, L., Hueston, L., Khan, S. F., Marland, E., et al. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Virology · doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2021.104797 · Cited by 8
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Sarfraz, A., Siddiqui, S. H., Iqbal, J., Ali, A., Hasan, Z., Sarfraz, Z., & Iqbal, N. T. (2021) · Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease · doi:10.1017/s2040174421000398 · Cited by 9
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Comparison of immune responses induced by two or three doses of an alum‐adjuvanted inactivated SARS‐CoV‐2 vaccine in mice
Luan, N., Wang, Y., Cao, H., Lin, K., & Liu, C. (2022) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.27637 · Cited by 8
The β-NGF/TrkA Signalling Pathway Is Associated With the Production of Anti-Nucleoprotein IgG in Convalescent COVID-19
Usai, C., Gibbons, J. M., Pade, C., Li, W., Jacobs, S. R. M., McKnight, Á., Kennedy, P. T. F., & Gill, U. S. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.813300 · Cited by 8
COVID-19 antibody seroprevalence in Duhok, Kurdistan Region, Iraq: A population-based studyPreprint
Hussein, N. R., Balatay, A. A., Naqid, I. A., Jamal, S. A., Rasheed, N. A., Ahmed, A. N., Salih, R. S., Mahdi, A. S., Mansour, S. A., Mahdi, S., et al. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.03.23.21254169 · Cited by 8
“It has been previously shown that antibody levels may decline over time 255 [17,18].”
Background
Serological profile of first SARS-CoV-2 reinfection cases detected within the SIREN study
Atti, A., Ferrari, M., Castillo‐Olivares, J., Monk, E. J. M., Gopal, R., Patel, M., Höschler, K., Cole, M. J., Semper, A. E., Hewson, J., et al. (2021) · Journal of Infection · doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2021.09.019 · Cited by 8
Safety and Immunogenicity Study of a Bivalent Vaccine for Combined Prophylaxis of COVID-19 and Influenza in Non-Human Primates
Stepanova, E., Isakova–Sivak, I., Matyushenko, V., Mezhenskaya, D. А., Kudryavtsev, I., Kostromitina, A. D., Chistyakova, A. K., Rak, A. Y., Bazhenova, E. A., Prokopenko, P., et al. (2024) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines12101099 · Cited by 7
Design of a Multi-Valent SARS-CoV-2 Peptide Vaccine for Broad Immune Protection via Deep Learning
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COVID-19 Pandemic: A Compressive Review on Gender, Herd Immunity, and Physiological Mechanisms
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Current updates on adaptive immune response by B cell and T cell stimulation and therapeutic strategies for novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) treatment
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“Cross-sectional studies in SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals have so far reported lower mean neutralizing antibody titres for serum samples collected at later time points POS (23–52 d) (Seow et al., 2020).”
COVID-19 Case Rates in the UK: Modelling Uncertainties as Lockdown Lifts
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Cross-Sectional Survey on BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine Serious Adverse Events in Children 5 to 11 Years of Age: A Monocentric Experience
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Humoral Immune Response in Inactivated SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine: When Should a Booster Dose be Administered?
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A comparative study of the COVID-19 vaccine efficacy among cancer patients: mRNA versus non-mRNA
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Dynamic causal modelling of immune heterogeneity
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SARS-COV-2, can you be over it?
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“It was shown recently that with the decline in IgG, IgM, and IgA after 3 months the neutralizing capacity of the antibodies also decreases.(35) However, this information from case reports or small case series has been counterbalanced by the emergence of an increasing literature that suggests that antibodies can last l…”
Bioinformatic HLA Studies in the Context of SARS‐CoV‐2 Pandemic and Review on Association of HLA Alleles with Preexisting Medical Conditions
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Previous Infection with SARS-CoV-2 Correlates with Increased Protective Humoral Responses after a Single Dose of an Inactivated COVID-19 Vaccine
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Evaluation of neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and immune response in patients vaccinated with Pfizer-Biontech vaccine
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SARS-CoV-2 Specific Antibody Response and T Cell-Immunity in Immunocompromised Patients up to Six Months Post COVID: A Pilot Study
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“IgG antibodies specific for the RBD of the spike protein have been shown to correlate with neutralization activity [27].”
Background
SARS-CoV-2-Induced Immunosuppression: A Molecular Mimicry Syndrome
Kanduc, D. (2022) · Global Medical Genetics · doi:10.1055/s-0042-1748170 · Cited by 7
Evaluation of humoral immune response in relation to COVID-19 severity over 1 year post-infection: critical cases higher humoral immune response than mild cases
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The Secretory IgA Response in Human Milk Against the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Is Highly Durable and Neutralizing for At Least 1 Year of Lactation Postinfection
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“32,39,40 The serum IgG half-life has been reported to be > 3 months in multiple studies, with 57% of individuals who were asymptomatically infected being IgG seropositive after 8 months and 71% of those who experienced mild symptoms maintaining positive IgG titers.”
Studying temporal titre evolution of commercial SARS-CoV-2 assays reveals significant shortcomings of using BAU standardization for comparison
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A bead-based multiplex assay covering all coronaviruses pathogenic for humans for sensitive and specific surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 humoral immunity
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SARS-CoV-2 and approaches for a testing and diagnostic strategy
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Decline in Sars‐CoV‐2 antibodies over 6‐month follow‐up in obstetrical healthcare workers
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A serological investigation in Southern Italy: was SARS-CoV-2 circulating in late 2019?
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Investigation and long‐term monitoring of the presence of neutralizing antibody in patients with COVID‐19 disease of different clinical severity
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Absence of Anti-RBD Antibodies in SARS-CoV-2 Infected or Naive Individuals Prior to Vaccination with CoronaVac Leads to Short Protection of Only Four Months Duration
de Oliveira, C. F., Neto, W. F. F., da Silva, C. P., Ribeiro, A. C. D. S., Martins, L. C., de Sousa, A. W., Freitas, M. N. O., Chiang, J. O., Silva, F. A., dos Santos, É. B., et al. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10050690 · Cited by 6
“This data provides solid evidence that humoral immunity against SARS-CoV-2 may not be long-lasting in people with mild disease and is aligned with reports from other countries [17,18,20].”
BackgroundResult
Risk Factors for Infection, Predictors of Severe Disease, and Antibody Response to COVID-19 in Patients With Inflammatory Rheumatic Diseases in Portugal—A Multicenter, Nationwide Study
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“At the very least, they suggest that it is not worse than that observed in the general population (8, 41, 42).”
Background
SARS-CoV-2-Specific Memory B Cell Responses Are Maintained After Recovery from Natural Infection and Postvaccination
Moore, T., Hossain, R., Doores, K. J., Shankar‐Hari, M., & Fear, D. J. (2022) · Viral Immunology · doi:10.1089/vim.2022.0013 · Cited by 7
“The work from this study largely supports existing studies that have shown some disease severity-associated differences in SARS-CoV-2 antigen-speciﬁc IgG titers, particularly in the early periods of convalescence (4,7,14,27,28,30,33).”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Kinetics of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection antibody responses
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“The specific IgA, targeting different antigens (S, RBD, N), peaked at about 1 month (16–30 days PSO) and then declined (26, 27).”
Background
On Ambiguity Reduction and the Role of Decision Analysis during the Pandemic
Rode, D. C., & Fischbeck, P. S. (2021) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.13705 · Cited by 8
“…of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, suggested that the government would consider issuing “certificates of immunity” to those with certain antibodies (Forgey, 2020), notwithstanding evidence that such immunity may be short-lived (Edridge et al., 2020; Seow et al., 2020).”
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COVID-19 adaptive humoral immunity models: non-neutralizing versus antibody-disease enhancement scenariosPreprint
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Th1 Dominant Nucleocapsid and Spike Antigen-Specific CD4+ and CD8+ Memory T Cell Recall Induced by hAd5 S-Fusion + N-ETSD Infection of Autologous Dendritic Cells from Patients Previously Infected with SARS-CoV-2Preprint
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SARS-CoV-2 RNAemia and proteomic biomarker trajectory inform prognostication in COVID-19 patients admitted to intensive carePreprint
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Self-citation
BCG revaccination qualitatively and quantitatively enhances SARS-CoV-2 spike-specific neutralizing antibody and T cell responses induced by the COVISHIELDTM vaccine in SARS-CoV-2 seronegative young Indian adultsPreprint
Rakshit, S., Adiga, V., Ahmed, A., Parthiban, C., Kumar, N. C., Shivalingaiah, S., Rao, S., D′Souza, G., Dwarkanath, P., Dias, M., et al. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1395683/v1 · Cited by 7
Self-citation
Kinetics and Correlates of the Neutralizing Antibody Response to SARS-CoV-2Preprint
Vanshylla, K., Cristanziano, V. D., Kleipass, F., Dewald, F., Schommers, P., Gieselmann, L., Gruell, H., Schlotz, M., Ercanoglu, M. S., Stumpf, R., et al. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.1101/2021.01.26.428207 · Cited by 7
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus‐2
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Antibodies to the RBD of SARS-CoV-2 spike mediate productive infection of primary human macrophages
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“…and mechanical ventilation or supplemental oxygen ( F I O 2 > 0.8) and peripheral oxygen saturations <90% (with no history of type 2 respiratory failure) or <85% (with known type 2 respiratory failure) for at least 12 hours; 5, the requirement for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation 87,88 .”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Critical Care Workers Have Lower Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 IgG Compared with Non-patient Facing Staff in First Wave of COVID19
Baxendale, H., Wells, D., Gronlund, J., Nadesalingam, A., Paloniemi, M., Carnell, G., Tonks, P., Ceron‐Gutierrez, L., Ebrahimi, S., Sayer, A., et al. (2021) · The Journal of Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.2478/jccm-2021-0018 · Cited by 6
“Diagnostic thresholds for the serology assay we used were established using acute phase sera from patients with moderate to severe disease and as such may have reduced sensitivity for detecting history of exposure particularly in those with asymptomatic or mild infection in whom short lived or no seroconversion has be…”
Method
Immune characteristics analysis reveals two key inflammatory factors correlated to the expressions of SARS-CoV-2 S1-specific antibodies
Li, S., Wang, W., Li, T., Han, X., Hu, C., Wang, Y., Shen, M., Du, L., Nai, Y., Wang, J., et al. (2020) · Genes & Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.gendis.2020.12.007 · Cited by 6
A case of COVID-19 Reinfection and Systematic Review of Patterns of Reinfection
Chamblain, M., Dawkins, E., Lane, J. C., Ghany, R. A., Tamariz, L. J., Palacio, A., & Guzman-Suarez, B. (2021) · Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1097/ipc.0000000000001055 · Cited by 6
“Potential mechanisms include suboptimal control of the SARSCoV-2 infection due to inappropriate T-cell response,(3) allowing a second episode of viral replication, an insufficient production of antibodies due to mild illness or immune dysfunction, or the loss of the antibodies over time.(4) Our patient's initial mild…”
Background
Impact of chemotherapy and immunotherapy on the composition and function of immune cells in COVID-19 convalescent with gynecological tumors
Qin, T., Guo, E., Lu, F., Fu, Y., Liu, S., Xiao, R., Wu, X. Y., Liu, C., He, C., Wang, Z., et al. (2021) · Aging · doi:10.18632/aging.203739 · Cited by 6
“Recent studies suggested that antibodies may be maintained for 2-6 months after SARS-CoV-2 recovery [11, 41].”
BackgroundMethod
A systematic review of rapid SARS-CoV-2 detection methods for mitigating future outbreaks of emerging or historical pathogens
Wang, Y., Xiao, J., Wei, J., Peng, Y., Li, M., & Tong, Y. (2024) · Microchemical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.microc.2024.111126 · Cited by 6
Profiling serum immunodominance following SARS-CoV-2 primary and breakthrough infection reveals distinct variant-specific epitope usage and immune imprinting
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Self-citation
Waning of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies after the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020: A 12-month-evaluation in three population-based European studies
Novelli, S., Reinkemeyer, C., Bulaev, D., O’Sullivan, M. P., Snoeck, C. J., Rauschenberger, A., Manto, C., Kolodkin, A. N., Ghosh, S., Satagopam, V., et al. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0320196 · Cited by 8
“For both antigens, data accumulated shows that after symptom onset seroconversion of IgM and IgG occurs at about 2–3 weeks and IgM levels drop significantly after 4–6 weeks, whereas IgG titers may last longer, as would be expected after an acute viral infection [3,4].”
Optimizing PBMC Cryopreservation and Utilization for ImmunoSpot® Analysis of Antigen-Specific Memory B Cells
Becza, N., Yao, L., Lehmann, P., & Kirchenbaum, G. A. (2025) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines13070765 · Cited by 5
“Subsequently, antibody levels can decline within months after vaccinations or infections [11–13], leaving the host susceptible to (re-)infection.”
Hypertonic saline nasal irrigation and gargling as an inexpensive practical adjunctive weapon to combat asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections. A case report
Rosati, P., Giordano, U., & Concato, C. (2020) · Trends in Medicine · doi:10.15761/tim.1000249 · Cited by 6
Optimal COVID-19 Vaccine Sharing Between Two Nations That Also Have Extensive Travel Exchanges
Huntingford, C., Rawson, T., & Bonsall, M. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.633144 · Cited by 6
“(24) report that acute immunity wanes as expected, but longer immunity from immunoglobulin antobodies can last beyond 94 days.”
Background
Barrier Gesture Relaxation during Vaccination Campaign in France: Modelling Impact of Waning Immunity
Vignals, C., Dick, D. W., Thiébaut, R., Wittkop, L., Prague, M., & Heffernan, J. M. (2021) · COVID · doi:10.3390/covid1020041 · Cited by 6
SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in high-risk health care workers in a Belgian general hospital: evolution from the first wave to the second
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“It was described that immune response in COVID-19 is multiple and that antibodies directed against SARS-CoV-2 wane over time [33,34], suggesting possible serorevertion”
Background
The immunologic response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
Le, N. K., Kaman, K., Martin, H. C., Mullur, J., Stenehjem, K. K., Coomar, L. A., Bahar, B., Dutta, M., Izurieta, R., & Brooks, J. P. (2021) · Allergy and Asthma Proceedings · doi:10.2500/aap.2021.42.210077 · Cited by 6
Preclinical immunological evaluation of an intradermal heterologous vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 variants
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“[9] Seow J, Graham C, Merrick B, et al.”
Background
Temporal trends and differences of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibody responses in symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects: a longitudinal study from Umbria in Italy
Abraha, I., Eusebi, P., Germani, A., Pasquarelli, E., Pascolini, S., Antonietti, R., Argenti, S., Fioravanti, A., Martini, E., Aristei, L., et al. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-056370 · Cited by 6
Comparative Characterization of Human Antibody Response Induced by BNT162b2 Vaccination vs. SARS-CoV-2 Wild-Type Infection
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“Rapidly decreasing anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels following vaccination indicate that humoral immunity might be transient, implying the necessity of a booster dose [20].”
Background
Serum Fc-Mediated Monocyte Phagocytosis Activity Is Stable for Several Months after SARS-CoV-2 Asymptomatic and Mildly Symptomatic Infection
Vangeti, S., Periasamy, S., Sun, P., Balinsky, C. A., Mahajan, A. S., Kuzmina, N. A., Schanoski, A. S., Cooper, E. S., Beckett, C. G., Marayag, J., et al. (2022) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.01837-22 · Cited by 7

Authors: Seow, J., Graham, C., Merrick, B., Acors, S., Pickering, S., Steel, K. J. A., Hemmings, O., O’Byrne, A., Kouphou, N., Galao, R. P., Betancor, G., Wilson, H. D., Signell, A. W., Winstone, H., Kerridge, C., Huettner, I., Jimenez-Guardeño, J. M., Lista, M. J., Temperton, N., Snell, L. B., Bisnauthsing, K., Moore, A., Green, A., Martinez, L., Stokes, B., Honey, J., Izquierdo-Barras, A., Arbane, G., Patel, A., Tan, M. K. I., O’Connell, L., O’Hara, G., MacMahon, E., Douthwaite, S., Nebbia, G., Batra, R., Martinez-Nunez, R., Shankar-Hari, M., Edgeworth, J. D., Neil, S. J. D., Malim, M. H., & Doores, K. J.
Affiliations: King's College London (GB)
Guy's Hospital (GB)
Medway School of Pharmacy (GB)
Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
Corresponding author: Doores, Katie J.
ORCID: Seow, Jeffrey
Merrick, Blair
Acors, Sam
Pickering, Suzanne
Steel, Kathryn J. A.
Hemmings, Oliver
O’Byrne, Aoife
Kouphou, Neophytos
Galao, Rui Pedro
Betancor, Gilberto
Wilson, Harry D.
Signell, Adrian W.
Winstone, Helena
Jimenez-Guardeño, Jose M.
Temperton, Nigel
Snell, Luke B.
Bisnauthsing, Karen
Martinez, Lauren
Stokes, Brielle
Izquierdo-Barras, Alba
Patel, Amita
Tan, Mark Kia Ik
O’Connell, Lorcan
O’Hara, Geraldine
Douthwaite, Sam
Nebbia, Gaia
Batra, Rahul
Shankar-Hari, Manu
Edgeworth, Jonathan D.
Neil, Stuart J. D.
Malim, Michael H.
Doores, Katie J.
Venue: Nature Microbiology
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2020-10-26
Volume: 5
Issue: 12
Pages: 1598-1607
ISSN: 2058-5276 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1038/s41564-020-00813-8
PMC: PMC7610833
OpenAlex: W3093667122
Cited by: 1,419
References: 62
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 75 · 2023: 147 · 2022: 311 · 2021: 615 · 2020: 207
FWCI: 41.93
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/text-and-data-mining (tdm)
www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/text-and-data-mining (vor)
Locations: Nature Microbiology (publishedVersion)
medRxiv (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Pure Amsterdam UMC (publishedVersion, other-oa)
Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Málaga (University of Málaga) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders: RCUK | Medical Research Council (MC/PC/15068, MR/N013700/1, MR/R015643/1, MC/PC/15068, MR/R015643/1, MR/S023747/1)
Huo Family Foundation
Wellcome Trust (WT098049AIA, MR/S023747/1, 106223/Z/14/Z)
Huo Family Foundation King’s Together Rapid COVID-19 Call award
DH | National Institute for Health Research (CS-2016-16-011)
King’s Together Rapid COVID-19 Call award Huo Family Foundation
Fondation Dormeur, Vaduz King’s Together Rapid COVID-19 Call award Huo Family Foundation
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 detection and testing
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 pandemic, neutralizing antibodies, antibody waning, seroconversion, antibody kinetics, disease severity, infectious dose, reinfection protection, healthcare workers, booster vaccination, serological testing
MeSH terms: Seroconversion, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Antibodies, Viral, Female, Humans, Kinetics, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Severity of Illness Index, Young Adult, Antibodies, Neutralizing

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Longitudinal observation and decline of neutralizing antibody responses in the three months following SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans

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