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A typology of compound weather and climate events

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Zscheischler, Jakob, Martius, Olivia, Westra, Seth, Bevacqua, Emanuele, Raymond, Colin, Horton, Radley M., van den Hurk, Bart, AghaKouchak, Amir, Jézéquel, Aglaé, Mahecha, Miguel D., Maraun, Douglas, Ramos, Alexandre M., Ridder, Nina N., Thiery, Wim, Vignotto, Edoardo·2020·Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
DOI 10.1038/s43017-020-0060-z
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Abstract

Compound weather and climate events describe combinations of multiple climate drivers and/or hazards that contribute to societal or environmental risk. Although many climate-related disasters are caused by compound events, the understanding, analysis, quantification and prediction of such events is still in its infancy. In this Review, we propose a typology of compound events and suggest analytical and modelling approaches to aid in their investigation. We organize the highly diverse compound event types according to four themes: preconditioned, where a weather-driven or climate-driven precondition aggravates the impacts of a hazard; multivariate, where multiple drivers and/or hazards lead to an impact; temporally compounding, where a succession of hazards leads to an impact; and spatially compounding, where hazards in multiple connected locations cause an aggregated impact. Through structuring compound events and their respective analysis tools, the typology offers an opportunity for deeper insight into their mechanisms and impacts, benefiting the development of effective adaptation strategies. However, the complex nature of compound events results in some cases inevitably fitting into more than one class, necessitating soft boundaries within the typology. Future work must homogenize the available analytical approaches into a robust toolset for compound-event analysis under present and future climate conditions. Research on compound events has increased vastly in the last several years, yet, a typology was absent. This Review proposes a comprehensive classification scheme, incorporating compound events that are preconditioned, multivariate, temporally compounding and spatially compounding events. Compound events — a combination of multiple drivers and/or hazards that contribute to societal or environmental risk — are responsible for many of the most severe weather-related and climate-related impacts. A classification of compound events is proposed, distinguishing events that are preconditioned, multivariate, temporally compounding and spatially compounding. The typology aids compound-event analysis by facilitating the selection of appropriate analysis and modelling tools. Through altering the distribution of climate variables and their spatial and temporal dependencies, climate change affects the likelihood, nature and impacts of compound events. Bottom-up approaches, which link sectoral impacts to physical hazards, can help understand and, ultimately, better prepare for emerging risks posed by compound events. Compound events — a combination of multiple drivers and/or hazards that contribute to societal or environmental risk — are responsible for many of the most severe weather-related and climate-related impacts. A classification of compound events is proposed, distinguishing events that are preconditioned, multivariate, temporally compounding and spatially compounding. The typology aids compound-event analysis by facilitating the selection of appropriate analysis and modelling tools. Through altering the distribution of climate variables and their spatial and temporal dependencies, climate change affects the likelihood, nature and impacts of compound events. Bottom-up approaches, which link sectoral impacts to physical hazards, can help understand and, ultimately, better prepare for emerging risks posed by compound events.

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Cited by

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Metadata

Authors
Zscheischler, J., Martius, O., Westra, S., Bevacqua, E., Raymond, C., Horton, R. M., van den Hurk, B., AghaKouchak, A., Jézéquel, A., Mahecha, M. D., Maraun, D., Ramos, A. M., Ridder, N. N., Thiery, W., & Vignotto, E.
Venue
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2020-06-15
Volume
1
Issue
7
Pages
333-347
ISSN
2662-138X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/s43017-020-0060-z
OpenAlex
W3035432101
Cited by
1,568
References
6
FWCI
12.96
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
green
Licence

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

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CoChat. (2026). Citation check: A typology of compound weather and climate events. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1038/s43017-020-0060-z
The paper
Zscheischler, J., Martius, O., Westra, S., Bevacqua, E., Raymond, C., Horton, R. M., van den Hurk, B., AghaKouchak, A., Jézéquel, A., Mahecha, M. D., Maraun, D., Ramos, A. M., Ridder, N. N., Thiery, W., & Vignotto, E. (2020). A typology of compound weather and climate events. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0060-z

Data sources

Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.

Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).

Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.