The transition from a cyanobacterial to algal world and the emergence of animals
Abstract
The Neoproterozoic, 1000-541 million years (Myr) ago, saw the transition from a largely bacterial world to the emergence of multicellular grazers, suspension feeders and predators. This article explores the hypothesis that the first appearance of large, multicellular heterotrophs was fueled by an elevated supply of nutrients and carbon from the bottom of the food chain to higher trophic levels. A refined record of molecular fossils of algal sterols reveals that the transition from dominantly bacterial to eukaryotic primary production in open marine habitat occurred between 659 and 645 Myr ago, in the hot interlude between two Snowball Earth glaciations. This bacterial-eukaryotic transition reveals three characteristics: it was rapid on geological timescales, it followed an extreme environmental catastrophe and it was permanent - hallmarks of an ecological hysteresis that shifted Earth's oceans between two self-stabilizing steady states. More than 50 million years of Snowball glaciations and their hot aftermath may have purged old-world bacterial phytoplankton, providing empty but nutrient-rich ecospace for recolonization by larger algae and transforming the base of the food web. Elevated average and maximum particle sizes at the base of the food chain may have provided more efficient energy and nutrient transfer to higher trophic levels, fueling an arms race toward larger grazers, predators and prey, and the development of increasingly complex feeding and defense strategies.
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Organic biomarker evidence for eukaryotic life (steranes), when vetted for contamination, does not appear until ∼820 Ma despite many searches for earlier occurrences.
“And, in what may be the most important tie point in this discussion, organic biomarker evidence for eukaryotic life (steranes), when vetted for miscues linked to contamination, does not appear until ∼820 Ma (Brocks et al., 2017; Brocks, 2018; Zumberge et al., 2020)—despite many searches in diverse paleoenvironmental settings for earlier occurrences (e.g., Nguyen et al., 2019).”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Brocks, 2018
Recent organic geochemical data suggest that bacteria continued to dominate primary production until the interglacial between the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations starting at roughly 660 Ma, while other data indicate a proliferation of eukaryotes starting closer to 800-750 Ma.
“Some recent organic geochemical data suggest that bacteria continued to dominate primary production until the interglacial between the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations (Brocks et al., 2017) starting at roughly 660 Ma, while other data indicate a proliferation of eukaryotes starting closer to 800–750 Ma (Brocks et al., 2017; Brocks, 2018; Isson et al., 2018).”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Brocks, 2018
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- Authors
- Brocks, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Australian National University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Brocks, Jochen J.
- ORCID
- Brocks, Jochen J.
- Venue
- Emerging Topics in Life Sciences
- Publisher
- Portland Press Ltd.
- Published
- 2018-06-29
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 181-190
- ISSN
- 2397-8554 (ISSN-L)
- 2397-8562
- OpenAlex
- W2810816570
- Cited by
- 74
- References
- 82
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 2
- FWCI
- 6.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Emerging Topics in Life Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Protist diversity and phylogeny
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Evolution and Paleontology Studies
- Keywords
- Neoproterozoic, Snowball Earth, cyanobacteria, molecular fossils, animal origins, particle size, environmental catastrophe
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