Reassessing the first appearance of eukaryotes and cyanobacteria
Abstract
The evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis had a profound impact on the Earth's surface chemistry, leading to a sharp rise in atmospheric oxygen between 2.45 and 2.32 billion years (Gyr) ago and the onset of extreme ice ages. The oldest widely accepted evidence for oxygenic photosynthesis has come from hydrocarbons extracted from approximately 2.7-Gyr-old shales in the Pilbara Craton, Australia, which contain traces of biomarkers (molecular fossils) indicative of eukaryotes and suggestive of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria. The soluble hydrocarbons were interpreted to be indigenous and syngenetic despite metamorphic alteration and extreme enrichment (10-20 per thousand) of (13)C relative to bulk sedimentary organic matter. Here we present micrometre-scale, in situ (13)C/(12)C measurements of pyrobitumen (thermally altered petroleum) and kerogen from these metamorphosed shales, including samples that originally yielded biomarkers. Our results show that both kerogen and pyrobitumen are strongly depleted in (13)C, indicating that indigenous petroleum is 10-20 per thousand lighter than the extracted hydrocarbons. These results are inconsistent with an indigenous origin for the biomarkers. Whatever their origin, the biomarkers must have entered the rock after peak metamorphism approximately 2.2 Gyr ago and thus do not provide evidence for the existence of eukaryotes and cyanobacteria in the Archaean eon. The oldest fossil evidence for eukaryotes and cyanobacteria therefore reverts to 1.78-1.68 Gyr ago and approximately 2.15 Gyr ago, respectively. Our results eliminate the evidence for oxygenic photosynthesis approximately 2.7 Gyr ago and exclude previous biomarker evidence for a long delay (approximately 300 million years) between the appearance of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria and the rise in atmospheric oxygen 2.45-2.32 Gyr ago.
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Hopanes and steranes in Archean rocks have been put forward as major evidence for an early emergence of oxygenic photosynthesis and eukaryotes, but whether they are syngenetic is debated.
“Hopanes and steranes found in Archean rocks have been presented as key evidence supporting the early rise of oxygenic photosynthesis and eukaryotes, but the syngeneity of these hydrocarbon biomarkers is controversial.”
From Reappraisal of hydrocarbon biomarkers in Archean rocks (2015) · cites this paper as [10]
The interpretation of the Archean biomarker record is controversial, with recent arguments that the hydrocarbons are not syngenetic.
“However, the interpretation of the Archean biomarker record has become controversial, with recent arguments for a nonsyngenetic origin of these hydrocarbons (10,11).”
From Reappraisal of hydrocarbon biomarkers in Archean rocks (2015) · cites this paper as [10]
Bulk organic carbon in the studied rocks is anomalously depleted in 13C, with δ13C values between -32‰ and -50‰.
“Consistent with earlier work (1,10,39,40), the bulk organic carbon was found to be anomalously 13 C-depleted, with δ 13 C values ranging from -32‰ to -50‰ (Fig. 2 and SI Appendix, Table S5).”
From Reappraisal of hydrocarbon biomarkers in Archean rocks (2015) · cites this paper as [10]
The HyPy hydrocarbon δ13C values reported here are the first compound-specific isotopic measurements in agreement with strongly 13C-depleted kerogens (bulk δ13C < -39‰) of the Neoarchean.
“The HyPy hydrocarbon δ 13 C values reported here are, to our knowledge, the first compound-specific isotopic measurements that are in agreement with the strongly 13 C-depleted kerogens (δ 13 C bulk < -39‰) of the Neoarchean (1,10,39,40).”
From Reappraisal of hydrocarbon biomarkers in Archean rocks (2015) · cites this paper as [10]
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- Authors
- Rasmussen, B., Fletcher, I. R., Brocks, J. J., & Kilburn, M. R.
- Affiliations
- Curtin University (AU)
- Australian National University (AU)
- The University of Western Australia (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Rasmussen, Birger
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2008-10
- Volume
- 455
- Issue
- 7216
- Pages
- 1101-1104
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2091875871
- Cited by
- 612
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 47 · 2013: 49 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 38.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Origins and Evolution of Life
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Keywords
- oxygenic photosynthesis, cyanobacteria, eukaryotes, Great Oxidation Event, hydrocarbon biomarkers, pyrobitumen, kerogen, carbon isotopes, 13C/12C, Pilbara Craton, Archean, Proterozoic, atmospheric oxygen rise, metamorphic alteration
- MeSH terms
- Cyanobacteria, Carbon Isotopes, Eukaryotic Cells, Biological Evolution, Hydrocarbons, Microscopy, Electron, Scanning, Geologic Sediments
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