Is working memory training effective?
Abstract
Working memory (WM) is a cognitive system that strongly relates to a person's ability to reason with novel information and direct attention to goal-relevant information. Due to the central role that WM plays in general cognition, it has become the focus of a rapidly growing training literature that seeks to affect broad cognitive change through prolonged training on WM tasks. Recent work has suggested that the effects of WM training extend to general fluid intelligence, attentional control, and reductions in symptoms of ADHD. We present a theoretically motivated perspective of WM and subsequently review the WM training literature in light of several concerns. These include (a) the tendency for researchers to define change to abilities using single tasks, (b) inconsistent use of valid WM tasks, (c) no-contact control groups, and (d) subjective measurement of change. The literature review highlights several findings that warrant further research but ultimately concludes that there is a need to directly demonstrate that WM capacity increases in response to training. Specifically, we argue that transfer of training to WM must be demonstrated using a wider variety of tasks, thus eliminating the possibility that results can be explained by task specific learning. Additionally, we express concern that many of the most promising results (e.g., increased intelligence) cannot be readily attributed to changes in WM capacity. Thus, a critical goal for future research is to uncover the mechanisms that lead to transfer of training.
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Passive control groups account for practice effects from repeated testing but not for motivational or Hawthorne effects that come with participating in an intervention.
“While this does control for important test-retest practice effects, it does not control for potential motivational or Hawthorne effects associated with being enrolled in an intervention study (Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2012).”
From Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis (2015) · cites this paper as Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2012
The training effect may extend beyond matrix reasoning tests and reflect a broader gain in fluid intelligence.
“thereby suggesting that the transfer of n-back training may not be restricted to matrix reasoning tests (Shipstead et al., 2012) but, rather, may reflect a more global improvement in Gf.”
From Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis (2015) · cites this paper as Shipstead et al., 2012
Certain less-near-transfer memory tasks, such as the odd-one-out task, are not included in the training programs yet still overlap with some training tasks, like simple-span tasks.
“As noted by Shipstead, Redick, and Engle (2012), even though some less-near-transfer memory tasks (e.g., odd-one-out task) are not part of the training programs, they still share some overlap with some training tasks (e.g., simple-span tasks).”
From Working memory training in typically developing children: A multilevel meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Shipstead, Redick, and Engle, 2012
Despite repeated calls for improvement, the working-memory training literature still contains methodological weaknesses in design and analysis.
“methodological deficiencies in both design and analysis persist in the WM training literature, despite many prior suggestions for remediation (Boot et al., 2013;Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2012;Tidwell et al., 2014).”
From Reevaluating the effectiveness of n-back training on transfer through the Bayesian lens: Support for the null (2016) · cites this paper as Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2012
A set of several measures is necessary to investigate the effects of working memory training on latent factors representing cognitive skills rather than single tasks.
“A set of several measures is necessary to investigate the effects of WM training on latent factors representing cognitive skills rather than single tasks (Noack et al., 2009;Schmiedek, Lövdén, & Lindenberger, 2010;Shipstead et al., 2012).”
From Working memory training does not enhance older adults' cognitive skills: A comprehensive meta-analysis (2019) · cites this paper as Shipstead et al., 2012
Measurement noise and impurity of cognitive tasks may mimic or obscure true underlying changes in cognitive abilities.
“Specifically, measurement noise and impurity of cognitive tasks may mimic or obscure true underlying changes in cognitive abilities.”
From Adaptive working memory training does not produce transfer effects in cognition and neuroimaging (2022) · cites this paper as [18]
Transfer effects were not consistent across studies.
“Despite these encouraging findings, the literature clearly shows that these transfer effects were not consistent across studies, a fact that has inspired intense recent debates regarding the transferability of training-induced performance gains (e.g., Shipstead et al., 2012; Melby-Lervåg and Hulme, 2013; Redick et al., 2013).”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Shipstead et al., 2012
Evidence for near and especially far transfer of working-memory training to untrained tasks and abilities has been reported less consistently and has been discussed controversially.
“Evidence for near and especially far transfer of working-memory training to untrained tasks and abilities has been reported less consistently and has been discussed very controversially (e.g., Shipstead et al., 2012; Redick et al., 2013).”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Shipstead et al., 2012
According to Shipstead et al. (2012), many small-scale studies reported effects that were not replicated in larger-scale interventions.
“according to Shipstead et al. (2012), many small-scale studies reported effects that were not replicated in larger-scale interventions.”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Shipstead et al., 2012
Methodological flaws criticized in working memory training studies include the use of non-adaptive or no-contact control groups, the use of individual tasks instead of batteries to measure constructs, and the analysis of reports from parents who were not blind to training conditions.
“Moreover, a few methodological flaws were criticized, such as the use of non-adaptive or no-contact control groups, the use of individual tasks instead of batteries in order to measure constructs, or the analysis of reports from parents that were not blind to training conditions (Shipstead et al., 2012).”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Shipstead et al., 2012
Reviews of existing neurocognitive training programs have identified many conceptual, methodological, and practical issues that need consideration when such programs are developed and evaluated.
“As noted in multiple empirical and theoretical reviews of extant neurocognitive training programs, there are a host of conceptual, methodological, and practical issues to consider when developing and evaluating neurocognitive training programs (Chacko et al., 2013a; Shipstead, et al., 2012).”
From Improving Outcomes for Youth with ADHD: A Conceptual Framework for Combined Neurocognitive and Skill-Based Treatment Approaches (2014) · cites this paper as Shipstead, et al., 2012
Computerized training programs for ADHD show some evidence for short-term effects on targeted working memory outcomes as measured by neurocognitive tests similar to the ones practiced in the games, but have not shown compelling evidence that these effects generalize beyond neurocognitive outcomes to important domains of daily life functioning.
“Although these programs show some evidence for short-term effects on targeted working memory outcomes as measured by neurocognitive tests similar to the ones practiced in the games, they have not shown compelling evidence that these effects generalize beyond neurocognitive outcomes to important domains of functioning in the daily lives of children with ADHD (so-called “far-transfer effects”) [27-”
The no-contact group is not given monetary (or equivalent) rewards or stimulating personal attention, both of which positively impact performance.
“The no-contact group is not given monetary (or equivalent) rewards or stimulating personal attention, both of which positively impact performance.”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2012
The magnitude of transfer, when such was reported, is usually small, and is difficult to dissociate from a null result, since it is not resilient to correction for multiple comparisons.
“The magnitude of transfer, when such was reported, is usually small, and is difficult to dissociate from a null result, since it is not resilient to correction for multiple comparisons.”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Shipstead et al., 2012
Many studies that reported near and far transfer effects are called into question due to small sample sizes and problematic control procedures.
“Although other studies have reported near and far transfer effects, many are called into question due to small sample sizes and problematic control procedures (for thorough discussion see [53–55]).”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [55]
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“Although these programs show some evidence for short-term effects on targeted working memory outcomes as measured by neurocognitive tests similar to the ones practiced in the games, they have not shown compelling evidence that these effects generalize beyond neurocognitive outcomes to important domains of functioning…”
BackgroundResultAugmentation of working memory training by transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
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“These include problems such as small sample sizes, passive control groups, subjective or unblinded rating measures, and hypothesis-inconsistent pretest and posttest patterns (Dougherty, Hamovitz, & Tidwell, 2016; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Rapport, Orban, Kofler, & Friedman, 2013; Redick, 2015; Redick et al., 2015; Sh…”
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- Authors
- Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2012-07
- Volume
- 138
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 628-654
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2160648917
- Cited by
- 1,101
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 65 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 74 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 110 · 2016: 109 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 110 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 27
- FWCI
- 142.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Office of Naval Research (N00014-09-1-0129)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- working memory training, transfer of training, fluid intelligence, attentional control, ADHD symptoms, task-specific learning, working memory capacity, cognitive training
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Cognition, Data Interpretation, Statistical, Humans, Intelligence, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Practice, Psychological, Research Design, Transfer, Psychology, Program Evaluation, Treatment Outcome
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