Differences of Mean Scores on the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) for Classical Christian Schools Compared to Non-Classical Christian Schools

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

At this level of cognitive development, young children's perceptions and explanations of the world often do not reflect scientific explanations (Anderson et al., 2014).

“At this level of cognitive development, young children's perceptions and explanations of the world often do not reflect scientific explanations (Anderson et al., 2014, p. 376).”

• cites Anderson et al., 2014 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Anderson et al. (2014) found that young children held simplistic conceptual understandings about plants and plant life.

“Anderson, Ellis, and Jones (2014) collected drawings, conducted interviews with, and observed “182 students in grades K and 1 in rural southeastern United States” (p.375), finding that young children held simplistic conceptual understandings about plants and plant life.”

• cites Anderson et al., 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Methods (Study Context; Data Sources) describe 182 kindergarten and first-grade students at a rural southeastern U.S. school, with drawings collected and a subset of 20 children interviewed. The Conclusions report that drawings most often showed simple plant needs, but interviews sometimes revealed more advanced knowledge; describing the children’s understandings as uniformly simplistic overstates the finding. The listed data sources are drawings, surveys, and interviews, not observations of all 182 students. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Anderson et al. (2014) found that young children in kindergarten and first grade had already begun to ask questions and explore the world around them long before entering formal scholastic activities.

“Anderson et al. (2014)found that young children in kindergarten and first grade had already begun to ask questions and explore the world around them long before entering formal scholastic activities.”

• cites Anderson et al., 2014 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Bandini et al. (2013) stated that phonological awareness means that the individual can abstract sound units with different extensions and recognize them in new words and even produce new words, and that these skills are a prerequisite for learning to read and write.

“Bandini, Santos, and das Graças de Souza (2013) stated that phonological awareness “means that the individual can abstract sound units with different extensions and recognize them in new words and even produce new words” and that these skills are “a prerequisite for learning to read and write” (pp.329-330).”

• cites Bandini et al., 2013 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Classical Christian instructional methods move in increasingly complex steps from facts to logical analysis to synthesis and presentation in the Trivium stages, mirroring aspects of Bloom's taxonomy.

“Classical Christian instructional methods move in increasingly complex steps from facts to logical analysis to synthesis and presentation in the Trivium stages, mirroring aspects of Bloom's taxonomy (Dong, 2014).”

• cites Dong, 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The opening discussion describes Bloom’s cognitive levels as progressing from knowledge through analysis to synthesis and evaluation. The section ‘Which Learning Techniques Should We Teach at Each Cognitive Level?’ also places oral presentations at a high level of the taxonomy. The paper does not discuss Classical Christian instruction or the Trivium, so it does not establish the claimed parallel. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Anderson et al. (2014) found that more complex understandings of the components of air, water, and sunlight were not found among respondents in their study.

“More complex understandings of the components of air (carbon monoxide, oxygen, etc.), water, and sunlight were not found among respondents in this study.”

• cites Anderson et al., 2014 sourcePartly supported

  In Results and Discussion, ‘The Surveys,’ the paper reports that a majority of students did not understand components of air, supporting that part of the claim. But some identified carbon dioxide (13%) or oxygen (37%), and an interviewee explained a role for sunlight in making plant food. The paper does not establish that complex understandings of air, water, and sunlight were absent from all respondents; it also says carbon dioxide, not carbon monoxide. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Anderson et al. (2014) found that young children perceive the world simplistically and concretely with direct connections to their experiences and sensory information.

“Findings included that young children perceive the world simplistically and concretely with direct connections to their experiences and sensory information”

• cites Anderson et al., 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction says children develop understandings through direct, concrete experiences that involve their senses. But the Conclusions and Implications describe the study’s findings as a spectrum from concrete images to abstract representations of plants, not a finding that young children perceive the world uniformly simplistically. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Bandini et al. (2013) noted that their results show there are distinct levels of development of specific phonological awareness abilities and that phonological awareness, phonological working memory and language abilities seem to be mutually related.

“Bandini et al. (2013) also noted that their results show “there are distinct levels of development of specific phonological awareness abilities” and that “phonological awareness, phonological working memory and language abilities seem to be mutually related” (pp.333, 335).”

• cites Bandini et al., 2013 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Bandini et al. (2013) found a greater development of the syllabic abilities than the phonemic abilities in young children.

“Results from the non-normal distribution of scores (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p < .01so a “nonparametric bivariate correlation test was used”) included “a greater development of the syllabic abilities than the phonemic abilities” in these young children (Bandini et al., 2013, pp. 331-332).”

• cites Bandini et al., 2013 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Bandini et al. (2013) posited that phonological awareness is acquired in an interdependent relationship with reading and writing and thus possibly more difficult for beginning readers.

“In light of the lowest scores occurring in transposing and otherwise manipulating phonemes, researchers posited that “phonological awareness is acquired in an interdependent relationship with reading and writing” (Bandini et al., 2013, p. 332) and thus possibly more difficult for beginning readers.”

• cites Bandini et al., 2013 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ritchie et al. (2013) found that children in the retrieval practice condition recalled significantly more facts four days later.

“Children “in the retrieval practice condition” (Ritchie et al., 2013, para.1) group were able to recall “significantly more facts four days later” (Ritchie et al., 2013, para.1).”

• cites Ritchie et al., 2013 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ritchie et al. (2013) stated that the results underline the effectiveness of retrieval practice for fact learning in young children.

“The results “underline the effectiveness of retrieval practice for fact learning in young children” (Ritchie et al., 2013, para. 1).”

• cites Ritchie et al., 2013 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ritchie et al. (2013) stated that the popular technique of mind mapping may be an interesting and enjoyable way for children to visually represent their learning, but teachers should not expect it to boost fact learning-at least of the type studied here-in the short- or long-term.

“Ritchie et al. (2013) stated, The popular technique of mind mapping may be an interesting and enjoyable way for children to visually represent their learning, but teachers should not expect it to boost fact learning-at least of the type studied here-in the short-or long-term.(2013, para.50)”

• cites Ritchie et al., 2013 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ritchie et al. (2013) found no effect of the mind mapping technique when results were measured.

“No effect of the mind mapping technique was found when results were measured.”

• cites Ritchie et al., 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The General Discussion says mind mapping had no main effect on fact recall, and Experiment 2 found no significant effect. But Experiment 1’s Results report that mind mapping improved recall in the non-retrieval condition. The unqualified claim that no effect was found omits that finding, although the authors note it was not replicated. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ritchie et al. (2013) found in two elementary school experiments in the United Kingdom of primary school children ages eight to 12 that traditional study techniques including rehearsing facts, note-taking, self-quizzing, and low stakes instructor quizzing produced superior recall of facts over time than visual organizers such as mind-mapping.

“Smith et al. (2013) Ritchie, Sala, and McIntosh (2013) found in two elementary school experiments in the United Kingdom of primary school children ages eight to 12 that traditional study techniques including rehearsing facts, note-taking, self-quizzing, and low stakes instructor quizzing produced superior recall of facts over time than visual organizers such as mind-mapping.”

• cites Ritchie et al., 2013 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Children's study habits at home influenced not only their cognitive ability but also the structure of their brains at some point.

“After a three-year longitudinal study, Asano et al. (2014) found that “children’s study habits at home influenced not only their cognitive ability but also the structure of their brains at some point” (p.809).”

• cites Asano et al. (2014) sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

On normalized gains and ANCOVA adjusted mean post test scores, data suggest that pedagogy has a significant effect while the classroom architecture by itself does not.

“When discussing results, Lasry et al. (2014) found that both on “normalized gains and ANCOVA adjusted mean” (p.010116-2) post test scores, respectively, data “suggest that pedagogy has a significant effect while the classroom architecture by itself does not” (p.010116-2).”

• cites Lasry et al. (2014) sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There was a significant positive correlation between study time at home and change in the verbal comprehension index (VCI).

“Researchers concluded that there was evidence to find “a significant positive correlation between study time at home and change in the verbal comprehension index (VCI), one of the subscales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-third edition (WISC-III)” (Asano et al., 2014, p. 801) as well as that increasing study times to 90 minutes or more may increase memory capacity and retrieval”

• cites Asano et al., 2014 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Latino migrant parental involvement with children's education increases student initiative and is critical to both family-school relationships and academic improvement.

“Gonzalez, Borders, Hines, Villalba, and Henderson (2013) wrote in their review that Latino migrant parental involvement with children’s education increases student initiative and is critical to both family-school relationships and academic improvement.”

• cites Gonzalez, Borders, Hines, Villalba, and Henderson (2013) sourcePartly supported

  The passage labeled Abstract (page unavailable) links parental involvement with student motivation, grades, and achievement, and discusses family–school relations. It reports positive associations, however, rather than showing that Latino immigrant parental involvement increases student initiative; it also does not establish that involvement is critical to family–school relationships. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Study time at home may have nonlinear effects on changes in brain structures; studying may significantly affect brain structures only when enough time has been devoted (e.g., more than 90 min).

“According to Asano et al. (2014), “furthermore, study time at home may have nonlinear effects on changes in brain structures… that is, studying may significantly affect brain structures only when enough time has been devoted to this activity (e.g., more than 90 min)” (p.808).”

• cites Asano et al. (2014) sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The impact of the pedagogy is weakest for students with high prior knowledge.

“Lasry et al. (2014) also found that the “impact of the pedagogy is weakest for students with high prior knowledge” (p.p. 010116-5), suggesting that a solid base of prior knowledge might allow college students to succeed regardless of the pedagogical or physical design of the classroom.”

• cites Lasry et al. (2014) sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Reading and writing skills are interdependent in nature (Bandini et al., 2013).

“Bandini et al., (2013) argued that reading and writing skills are interdependent in nature, as supported by similar findings in the present study of statistically significant higher mean scores in both of these academic areas for Classical Christian schools.”

• cites Bandini et al., (2013) sourcePartly supported

  The Results and Discussion section says phonological awareness develops in an interdependent relationship with reading and writing. It does not say that reading and writing skills are interdependent with each other. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

In the study's sample, Welch's t-tests for unequal variances returned statistically significant differences in PSAT mean scores between Classical Christian and non-Classical Christian schools for reading, math, and writing at both alpha = .05 and alpha = .017 (Bonferroni correction).

“Welch's t-tests for unequal variances compared school score means with an alpha set at .05 and then at .017 for Bonferroni correction and returned statistically significant results for all three academic areas at both alpha levels.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The PSAT mean scores reported by schools through the headmaster survey are accurate and comparable across schools.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Classical Christian and non-Classical Christian schools in the sample are comparable in relevant background characteristics other than pedagogy.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: PSAT mean scores from the 2003-2004 through 2012-2013 school years are comparable and can be pooled.

May combine two claims.

In mean reading scores, students from Classical Christian schools (M=55.23, SD=21.59, n=718) scored significantly higher than students from non-Classical Christian schools (M=48.56, SD=3.68, n=3,768), with Welch's t(3768)=36.36, p<.001, and a high effect size (d=1.73; η2=.428).

“In mean reading scores, students from Classical Christian schools (M=55.23,SD =21.59, n=718) scored significantly higher than students from non-Classical Christian schools (M=48.56,SD =3.68, n=3,768).The effect size was high (d= 1.73).Eta squared returned η 2 = .428,indicating that 43% of variation in dependent variable was explained by independent variable.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The samples were a random sample from the populations.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two groups of schools are comparable except for the educational philosophy (Classical vs non-Classical), with no confounding variables affecting PSAT mean scores.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The school-reported PSAT mean scores are accurate and comparable across schools.

May combine two claims.

In mean math scores, students from Classical Christian schools (M=53.77, SD=4.88, n=718) scored significantly higher than students from non-Classical Christian schools (M=49.76, SD=3.45, n=3,768), with Welch's t(858)=21.04, p<.001, and a high effect size (d=1.08; η2=.225).

“In mean math scores, students from Classical Christian schools (M =53.77,SD =4.88, n=718) scored significantly higher than students from non-Classical Christian schools (M=49.76,SD =3.45, n=3,768).The effect size was high (d= 1.08).Eta squared returned η 2 = .225,indicating that 23% of variation in dependent variable was explained by independent variable.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The samples were a random sample from the populations.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two groups of schools are comparable except for the educational philosophy (Classical vs non-Classical), with no confounding variables affecting PSAT mean scores.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The school-reported PSAT mean scores are accurate and comparable across schools.

May combine two claims.

The difference in PSAT scores between Classical Christian and non-Classical Christian schools had a high effect size (d=1.37) and an eta squared of .318, indicating that 32% of variation in the dependent variable was explained by the independent variable.

“The effect size was high (d= 1.37).Eta squared returned η 2 = .318,indicating that 32% of variation in dependent variable was explained by independent variable.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

About half of the schools that responded provided some demographic information that was incomplete from year to year, with the most recent containing the most complete.

“About half of the schools that responded provided some demographic information that was incomplete from year to year, with the most recent containing the most complete.”

May combine two claims.

Classical Christian school mean writing score was 56.542 (SD=7.105, n=144) and non-Classical Christian mean writing score was 48.825 (SD=4.741, n=196).

“Writing Non-classical Christian 196 48.825 4.741 .339Classical Christian 144 56.542 7.105 .592”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Most schools reported they did not have demographic data on hand since private schools are not required to report demographics to the federal government.

“Most schools reported they did not have such data on hand since private schools are not required to report demographics to the federal government.”

May combine two claims.

Classical Christian school mean reading score was 56.521 (SD=6.025, n=152) and non-Classical Christian mean reading score was 48.870 (SD=3.920, n=196).

“Reading Non-classical Christian 196 48.870 3.920 .280Classical Christian 152 56.521 6.025 .489”

May combine two claims.

Classical Christian school mean math score was 54.426 (SD=5.860, n=152) and non-Classical Christian mean math score was 49.305 (SD=4.082, n=196).

“Math Non-classical Christian 196 49.305 4.082 .292Classical Christian 152 54.426 5.860 .475”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Positive change related to attending religious schools can turn the tide of declining test scores and reduce risky behaviors such as illicit drug use, alcohol abuse, and teen pregnancy.

“According to Jeynes (2008), Positive change related to attending religious schools can turn the tide of declining test scores and also reduce risky behaviors such as illicit drug use, alcohol abuse, and teen pregnancy.”

• cites Jeynes (2008)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Students from religious schools performed better on standardized tests than public school counterparts, while Protestant students scored higher on some measures than Catholic school peers.

“According to Jeynes (2003Jeynes ( , 2002)), students from religious schools performed better on standardized tests than public school counterparts while Protestant students scored higher on some measures than Catholic school peers.”

• cites Jeynes (2003, 2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

PSAT scores are considered a reflection of academic achievement.

“Whether students attend private or public schools, charter, college prep, or religious schools, the standardized tests for college admission are considered a reflection of academic achievement (The College Board, 2011).”

• cites The College Board, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Comparing pedagogies can give important insights into the assumptions underpinning the nature of knowledge and inquiry.

“Comparing pedagogies proved useful, according to Hobbs and Davis (2013), because this type of research”

• cites Hobbs & Davis (2013)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

As curricular demands became more rigorous regarding thinking demands, ninth-grade students became and sustained more engagement.

“Paige et al.'s (2013) study results based on ninth graders suggested that as the curricular demands became more rigorous regarding thinking demands, students became and sustained more engagement.”

• cites Paige et al. (2013) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cognitive rigor is a determinant of academic achievement and involves students being challenged to think at high levels.

“Paige, Sizemore, and Neace (2013) posited that cognitive rigor, which”

• cites Paige, Sizemore, and Neace (2013) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Comparing instructional methods is important to shed light on higher levels of knowledge understanding with the ultimate aim of improving student learning.

“Su et al. (2014) stated that such comparisons of instructional methods is important to”

• cites Su et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Bible knowledge is positively associated with pro-social behavior as well as academic success.

“Jeynes ' (2009, 2010a) research established that Bible knowledge is positively associated with pro-social behavior as well as academic success.”

• cites Jeynes (2009, 2010a)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Comparing pedagogies can be fruitful for sharing wisdom, developing best practices, gaining insight into teaching methods, and improving understanding and student learning.

“As outlined above, comparing pedagogies can be fruitful for sharing wisdom, as Miyazaki (2011) stated, for developing best practices as Dai (2013) contended, or for gaining insight into teaching methods (Hobbs & David, 2013) while improving understanding and student learning (Su et al., 2014).”

• cites Miyazaki (2011)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Dai (2013)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hobbs & David, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Students receiving the problem-solving teaching method scored higher on the programming post-test than students receiving the traditional method, regardless of which tool was used.

“Results included higher scores from students receiving the problem-solving teaching method regardless of which tool was used (Su, et al., 2014).”

• cites Su et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Researchers would expect to find higher academic achievement in schools implementing a rigorous instructional philosophy.

“Researchers then would expect to find higher academic achievement in schools implementing a rigorous instructional philosophy.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The findings from the cited literature on religious schools, rigor, and developmental methods generalize to the population of Classical Christian schools in this study.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The archival data were randomly selected from all schools answering a headmaster survey.

“A causal-comparative study was conducted to measure archival data that was randomly selected from all schools answering a headmaster survey.”

May combine two claims.

Attending a religious school reduced the majority/minority achievement gap by 25%, and the positive effects of Christian education have been persistent over time.

“Further, Jeynes (2010bJeynes ( , 2012a) ) found that attending a religious school reduced the majority/minority achievement gap by 25%, and the positive effects of Christian education have been persistent over time.”

• cites Jeynes (2010b, 2012a)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The analysis used Welch's t-tests for unequal variances and applied a Bonferroni correction (alpha = .017) to control for multiple comparisons.

“Welch's t-tests for unequal variances compared school score means with an alpha set at .05 and then at .017 for Bonferroni correction and returned statistically significant results for all three academic areas at both alpha levels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Comparing instructional methods is important to facilitate improvement in student learning as well as teacher-course effectiveness.

“Dai (2013) argued that comparing instructional methods is important to facilitate improvement in student learning as well as teacher-course effectiveness.”

• cites Dai (2013)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Trivium method is developmental in nature, stressing mastery of factual knowledge and rules in the Grammar stage; organization, integration and analysis in the Dialectic or Logic stage; and self-directed inquiry, synthesis, articulation/presentation, both oral and written, in the Rhetoric stage.

“As recorded by Spencer (1996), the Trivium method is developmental in nature, stressing mastery of factual knowledge and rules in the Grammar stage; organization, integration and analysis in the Dialectic or Logic stage; and self-directed inquiry, synthesis, articulation/presentation, both oral and written, in the Rhetoric stage.”

• cites Spencer (1996)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The framework for understanding the instructional model used in Classical Christian education is the Trivium.

“The framework for understanding the instructional model used in Classical Christian education (developmentally appropriate instructional methods as well as identifying the student's cognitive stage for class level grouping) is the Trivium (Spencer, 1996).”

• cites Spencer, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Haberkorn et al. (2014) found that the test items were able to measure metamnemonic knowledge, a construct empirically well distinguishable from tests assessing language skills.

“most importantly that the test items were able to measure “metamnemonic knowledge,” a “construct that is empirically well distinguishable from tests assessing language skills” (p.251).”

• cites Haberkorn et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Valanides et al. (2014) pointed to the gap between high-and low-ability students as increasing as students become older, which seems to indicate that the existing educational system is tailored only to the needs of students who are at a higher stage of their cognitive development.

“The researchers also pointed to the gap “between high-and low-ability students” as increasing “as students become older” which seems “to indicate that the existing educational system is tailored only to the needs of students who are at a higher stage of their cognitive development” (Valanides et al., 2014, p. 35).”

• cites Valanides et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Valanides et al. (2014) stated that children, as opposed to adult students, tend to function based on simplistic models and concrete observations.

“Valanides et al. (2014) stated that children, as opposed to adult students, tend to function based on simplistic models and concrete observations.”

• cites Valanides et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Haberkorn et al. (2014) assessed that neither language skills nor cognitive abilities strongly confounded the measure of metacognitive knowledge.

“Haberkorn et al. (2014) assessed that the results suggested “that neither language skills nor cognitive abilities strongly confounded the measure of metacognitive knowledge” (p.255).”

• cites Haberkorn et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Valanides et al. (2014) found a significant interaction effect between grade level and ability, with the difference between fourth and sixth graders being more pronounced in high-ability students and moving to smaller or insignificant for low-ability students.

“returning results that indicated there was a “significant interaction effect between grade level and ability” (p.32) with the difference between fourth and sixth graders being more pronounced in high-ability students moving to smaller or insignificant for low-ability students.”

• cites Valanides et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Haberkorn et al. (2014) held that children's metacognitive knowledge comprises distinct components and is multidimensional with weak inter-relations in young children.

“Haberkorn et al. (2014) held that “children's metacognitive knowledge comprises distinct components,” and is “multidimensional” with weak inter-relations in young children (p.255).”

• cites Haberkorn et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Classical Christian schools exhibit a close-knit family structure based on covenant relationships of Biblical humility and selflessness, forming a type of social capital as described by Coleman.

“Classical Christian schools exhibit a close-knit family structure based on covenant relationships of Biblical humility and selflessness as described by New College Franklin Chancellor and Pastor George Grant (2010), forming a type of social capital as described by Coleman (1988).”

• cites Grant (2010)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Coleman (1988) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Classical Christian method is designed to combine spiritual inculcation of virtue with rigorous intellectual pursuits so students grow spiritually, intellectually, and socially.

“By combining the spiritual inculcation of virtue with rigorous intellectual pursuits, the Classical Christian method is designed so students grow”

• cites Littlejohn and Evans (2006)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Haberkorn et al. (2014) found that students scored significantly higher in second grade than in first grade on cognitive, metacognitive, and language abilities, with everyday thinking items returning the highest correct responses overall.

“Results included that students scored significantly higher in second grade than in first grade on cognitive, metacognitive, and language abilities with the everyday thinking items returning the highest correct responses overall (Haberkorn et al., 2014).”

• cites Haberkorn et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Yuksel (2014) stated that metacognition, as a self-monitoring skill, is highly predictive of students' academic success in mathematics.

“Metacognition, as a self-monitoring skill, is highly predictive of students' academic success in mathematics (Yuksel, 2014).”

• cites Yuksel, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Higher order cognitive and affective theory of mind typically develops between ages eight and 12.

“Higher order cognitive and affective (feeling) ToM which typically develop between ages eight and 12 are things like being able to recognize”

• cites Stanzione & Schick, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Peterson reran the Lubienski's analysis using different socioeconomic accounting methods and found the opposite conclusions.

“Most notably, Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government Professor Paul E. Peterson reran the Lubienski's analysis using different socioeconomic accounting methods and found the opposite conclusions (Yettick, 2014).”

• cites Yettick, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Valanides et al. (2014) found that older students had developed more of an investigative ability.

“Results of the experiment with Valanides et al.'s (2014) box switches and light bulb combinations showed that the older students had developed more of an investigative ability.”

• cites Valanides et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Researchers would expect to find the highest academic performance from an educational philosophy that combines both academic rigor and development of creativity in individuals.

“Researchers would expect to find the highest academic performance then from an educational philosophy which combines both academic rigor and development of creativity in individuals.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The findings from the cited literature on religious schools, rigor, and developmental methods generalize to the population of Classical Christian schools in this study.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Direct instruction in analyzing facts within complex contexts is required to develop students' critical judgment; more intellectual challenge, not fun and games, delivered the desired results.

“According to DiCamillo's (2010) case study, direct instruction in analyzing facts within complex contexts is required to develop students' critical judgment; more intellectual challenge, not fun and games, is what delivered the desired results.”

• cites DiCamillo (2010)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Valanides et al. (2014) found that the majority of students not only failed to adequately control variables, but also failed to a certain extent to show mature combinatorial reasoning abilities.

“While more sixth graders and high-performing students were able to solve the issues of how the experimental device functioned, “the majority of the students not only failed to adequately control variables, but they also failed to a certain extent, to show mature combinatorial reasoning abilities” (Valanides et al., 2014, p. 33).”

• cites Valanides et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Yuksel (2014) stated that prior knowledge in mathematics is a predictor of mathematics performance and critical to learning new concepts.

“Yuksel (2014) stated that “prior knowledge in mathematics is a predictor of mathematics performance” (Yuksel, 2014(Yuksel, , p. 1448) and critical to learning new concepts.”

• cites Yuksel, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Walsh et al. supported the Classical Christian philosophy of education in arguing for differentiation and ability grouping toward more challenging materials even at the earliest ages.

“Recent research in supporting gifted students by Walsh, Kemp, Hodge, and Bowes (2012) supported the Classical Christian philosophy of education in arguing for differentiation and ability grouping toward more challenging materials even at the earliest ages.”

• cites Walsh, Kemp, Hodge, and Bowes (2012) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Haberkorn et al. (2014) posited that knowledge about a certain strategy is more consistent within children than knowledge about a certain mental process like knowledge about factors influencing remembering.

“Haberkorn et al. (2014) posited that “knowledge about a certain strategy is more consistent within the children” in the study “than knowledge about a certain mental process like knowledge about factors influencing remembering” (p.255).”

• cites Haberkorn et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Researchers should expect to find the highest performing Christian students in schools where critical thinking, engagement, and application of spiritual truths are emphasized.

“Researchers should expect to find the highest performing Christian students in schools where critical thinking, engagement, and application of spiritual truths are emphasized.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The findings from the cited literature on religious schools, rigor, and developmental methods generalize to the population of Classical Christian schools in this study.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Turner (2011) stated that outside these domains, all learners, including young children, depend upon their will and effort in order to enhance learning.

“Outside of these domains, Turner (2011) stated all learners, including young children, depend upon their will and effort in order to enhance learning (p.125).”

• cites Turner, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ravitch insisted that the job of schools is not transformational social justice but making children more intelligent, and that if schools attempt to do anything but provide mastery of collective cultural knowledge with the ability to read, write, and think for themselves, it will fail.

“Ravitch (2006) insisted that the job of schools is not transformational social justice but”

• cites Ravitch (2006)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Based on cognitive-developmental theorists, researchers should expect higher achievement from students in Christian schools that recognize developmental stages and encourage mastery of measurable skills to place students at appropriately rigorous and developmentally-appropriate levels.

“Based on the cognitive-developmental theorists, researchers should expect to find higher achievement from students in Christian schools recognizing developmental stages and encouraging mastery of measureable skills in order to place students at appropriately rigorous and developmentally-appropriate levels.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The findings from the cited literature on religious schools, rigor, and developmental methods generalize to the population of Classical Christian schools in this study.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A lack of rigorous instruction constrains students' academic achievement.

“Torff (2014) connected a lack of rigorous instruction with constraining students' academic achievement.”

• cites Torff (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Both cognitive and social/emotional frameworks start developing at birth and continue to develop in measurable stages.

“Brain research described by Westby and Robinson (2014) found that both cognitive and social/emotional frameworks start developing at birth and continue to develop in measureable stages.”

• cites Westby and Robinson (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Metacognitive awareness is faint in younger children but grows as they mature.

“Haberkorn, Lock, Pohl, Ebert, and Weinert (2014) found that metacognitive awareness is faint in younger children but grows as they mature.”

• cites Haberkorn et al. (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Direct instruction in the art of persuasive argument benefited low-income African American middle-school students.

“Researchers Coker and Erwin (2010) found that direct instruction in the art of persuasive argument benefitted low-income African American middle-school students.”

• cites Coker and Erwin (2010)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The Classical Christian method stresses rigor as a part of fulfilling an individual's God-given plan through purposeful effort.

“Similarly, the Classical Christian method stresses rigor as a part of fulfilling an individual's God-given plan through purposeful effort (Exodus 20:9-10; 2 Thessalonians 3:10; 2 Corinthians 9:8; 2 Thessalonians 3:8).”

• cites Exodus 20:9-10Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites 2 Thessalonians 3:10Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites 2 Corinthians 9:8Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Yuksel (2014) found that students with a higher prior knowledge of math facts performed better overall in both attitude and aptitude during testing.

“Students with a higher prior knowledge of math facts performed better overall in both attitude and aptitude during Yuksel's (2014) testing.”

• cites Yuksel, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Haberkorn et al. (2014) found a significant association between linguistic competencies and metacognitive knowledge.

“Haberkorn et al. (2014) found “significant association between linguistic competencies and metacognitive knowledge,” (p.251)”

• cites Haberkorn et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

According to Valanides et al. (2014), research in real classroom settings showed that most sixth-grade students were able to design lucid experiments when given only one independent and one dependent variable, but had difficulties with higher levels of conceptualization such as continuous data or evaluations of complex data.

“According to Valaides et al. (2014), “Research in real classroom settings showed that most sixth-grade students were able to design lucid experiments when given only one independent and one dependent variable,” (p.27) but had difficulties with higher levels of conceptualization such as continuous data or evaluations of complex data.”

• cites Valanides et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Valanides et al. (2014) found that younger and lower ability elementary school students had difficulties with effectively organizing collected data and failed to coordinate hypotheses with evidence in their investigation of elementary school children's ability to conduct a scientific experiment.

“Valanides, Papageorgiou, and Angeli (2014) found that younger and “lower ability” elementary school students “had difficulties with effectively organizing collected data and failed to coordinate hypotheses with evidence” in their investigation of elementary school children's “ability to conduct a scientific experiment” (p.26).”

• cites Valanides et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Kim and Rehder (2011) noted that learners showed no initial tendency to fixate related dimensions but gradually shifted attention to related dimensions and this shift continued after the classification problem was solved, or in the absence of negative feedback.

“Also, Kim and Rehder (2011) noted that “learners showed no initial tendency to fixate related dimensions” (p.658) but “gradually shifted attention to related dimensions” (p.658) and this shift “continued after the classification problem was solved,” (p.658) or “in the absence of negative feedback” (p.658).”

• cites Kim and Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Yuksel (2014) found that students with more prior knowledge on mathematics performed better than other students did in posttest and retention exams, and all students in the treatment group showed significant gains.

“While students who started the process with the least mathematics prior knowledge showed the most increases in test scores, “students with more prior knowledge on mathematics performed better than the other students did in posttest and retention” (Yuksel, 2014(Yuksel, , p. 1459) ) exams, and all students in the treatment group showed significant gains.”

• cites Yuksel, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Roelle et al. (2014) found that providing reduced explanations and focused processing prompts lost its superiority when encountering students with a higher level of prior knowledge and even became detrimental for learners who already had basic prior knowledge.

“Significantly, Roelle et al. (2014) alsofound that “providing reduced explanations and focused processing prompts lost its superiority” (p.15) when encountering students with a higher level of prior knowledge and “even became detrimental for learners who already had basic prior knowledge” (p.15).”

• cites Roelle et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kim and Rehder (2011) found that after training, participants were more than twice as likely to fixate the related dimensions than the neutral ones.

“so that after the training was completed, participants were “more than twice as likely to fixate the related dimensions than the neutral ones” (Kim & Rehder, 2011, p. 655).”

• cites Kim & Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lee and Chen (2014) stated that prior knowledge has been identified as a key component to consider when evaluating the effects of learning.

“Lee and Chen (2014) stated, “Prior knowledge has been identified as a key component to consider when evaluating the effects of learning” (p.181).”

• cites Lee and Chen, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Essentialist thought argues toward mastery of basic knowledge prior to learning the complementary abstract concept.

“While Lee and Chen (2014) suggested more social learning type group activities and re-teaching of concrete concepts to bring up the level of low prior knowledge students to improve performance on learning more abstract concepts, Essentialist thought argues toward mastery of basic knowledge prior to learning the complementary abstract concept.”

• cites Bagley, 1911bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Findings by Purnomo et al. (2014) supported a developmental view of number sense.

“Findings by Purnomo, Kowiyah, Alyani, and Assiti (2014) supported a developmental view of number sense.”

• cites Purnomo et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kim and Rehder (2011) concluded that together, these results confirm that the knowledge effect is obtained even when the prior knowledge is acquired during an experimental session.

“Kim and Rehder (2011) concluded that “together, these results confirm that the knowledge effect is obtained even when the prior knowledge is acquired during an experimental session” (p.654).”

• cites Kim and Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kim and Rehder (2011) found that eye fixations showed that prior knowledge indeed affects what category information is attended, as indicated by learners allocating more attention to related dimensions than neutral ones.

“Results as discussed by Kim and Rehder (2011) included that eye fixations “showed that prior knowledge indeed affects what category information is attended,” (p.658) as indicated by learners “allocating more attention to related dimensions than neutral ones” (p.658).”

• cites Kim and Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Liu et al. (2014) found that regardless of the materials, high prior knowledge students needed less time to learn and achieved higher performance on both tests than low prior knowledge students.

“Research on elementary school students' learning about plants corroborates findings by Lee and Chen (2014) in that regardless of the materials (leafs, plants, or pictorial representations on tablets or in print), “high prior knowledge students needed less time to learn and achieved higher performance on both tests than low prior knowledge students” (Liu, Lin, & Paas, 2014, p. 334).”

• cites Liu et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Yuksel's (2014) analysis of results included that there was a significant difference in mathematics gains in favor of groups with a high prior knowledge, and high reading ability.

“Yuksel's (2014) analysis of results included that “there was a significant difference in mathematics gains in favor of groups with a high prior knowledge, and high reading ability” (p.1460).”

• cites Yuksel, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Kim and Rehder (2011) found that greater attention resulted in greater learning and no attention resulted in no learning.

“Additionally, regressions performed by the researchers returned results showing that greater attention resulted in greater learning and no attention resulted in no learning”

• cites Kim and Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Kim and Rehder (2011) found that learners initially observed about 1.5 of the two neutral dimensions and those fixations gradually decreased.

“but they “initially observed about 1.5 of the two neutral dimensions and those fixations gradually decreased” (Kim & Rehder, 2011, p. 655)”

• cites Kim & Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kim and Rehder (2011) noted that learners' preference for the related dimensions emerged only after the observation of category members (and the receipt of error feedback).

“Kim and Rehder (2011) noted, “Learners' preference for the related dimensions emerged only after the observation of category members (and the receipt of error feedback)” (p.656).”

• cites Kim and Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kim and Rehder (2011) found that single-feature tests showed better learning of the related dimensions than the neutral ones.

“and the “single-feature tests showed better learning of the related dimensions than the neutral ones” (p.654).”

• cites Kim and Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Roelle et al. (2014) found that learners who received focused processing prompts acquired more conceptual knowledge than those who did not.

“Results showed that while complete or reduced explanations had little effect on learners' posttest scores, “learners who received focused processing prompts acquired more conceptual knowledge” (Roelle et al., 2014, p. 9) than those who did not.”

• cites Roelle et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Roelle et al. (2014) found that learners who received focused processing prompts attended to the prompted inferences more than learners who received complete explanations and general purpose instructions.

“Similar results were recorded, in that “learners who received focused processing prompts attended to the prompted inferences more than learners who received complete explanations and general purpose instructions” (Roelle et al., 2014, p. 13).”

• cites Roelle et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lee and Chen (2014) noted that among students with low prior knowledge, no significant difference was observed in perceiving the importance of studying mathematics.

“Lee and Chen (2014) also noted that “among students with low prior knowledge, no significant difference was observed” in perceiving the importance of studying mathematics (p. 198).”

• cites Lee and Chen, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kim and Rehder (2011) found that learners initially observed about three of four related dimensions and gradually increased fixations during training.

“eye tracking measures indicated that “learners initially observed about three of four related dimensions and gradually increased fixations” (Kim & Rehder, 2011, p. 655) during training”

• cites Kim & Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kim and Rehder (2011) found that neutral dimensions were learned no worse in the related condition as compared to the neutral condition.

“Kim and Rehder (2011) found that “the neutral dimensions were learned no worse in the related condition as compared to the neutral condition” (p.654)”

• cites Kim and Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Liu et al. (2014) found that students with a higher prior knowledge were able to comprehend the pictures and tablet representations as complementary and assimilated only the added information presented by each source.

“Students with a higher prior knowledge were able to comprehend the pictures and tablet representations as complementary and assimilated only the added information presented by each source.”

• cites Liu et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Liu et al. (2014) found that students without a mastery of basic knowledge relating to plants suffered from the redundancy effect, expending mental energy and time comparing three-dimensional plants with two-dimensional representations and assimilating essential and non-essential information alike without being able to discriminate between them.

“Students without a mastery of basic knowledge relating to plants suffered from what Liu et al. (2014) called the redundancy effect, in that they expended mental energy and time comparing three-dimensional plants with two dimensional representations and assimilating essential and non-essential information alike without being able to discriminate between them.”

• cites Liu et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Lee and Chen (2014) found in a Taiwanese study that prior knowledge improved eighth grade students' performance overall in geometry, even though the experiment was designed to test virtual manipulatives with prior knowledge as a secondary variable.

“Lee and Chen (2014) found in a Taiwanese study that prior knowledge improved eighth grade students' performance overall in geometry, even though the experiment was designed to test virtual manipulatives with prior knowledge as a secondary variable.”

• cites Lee and Chen, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Roelle et al. (2014) posited that focused processing prompts were less ambiguous, resulting in learners detecting relevant information more easily.

“Roelle et al. (2014) posited that the “focused processing prompts were less ambiguous, thus resulting in the learners detecting relevant information more easily,” (p.12)”

• cites Roelle et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Kim and Rehder (2011) found that eye fixations during training were a significant predictor of feature learning at test, but they did not fully mediate the better learning of the related dimensions.

“Finally, although eye fixations during training were a significant predictor of feature learning at test, they did not fully mediate the better learning of the related dimensions according to Kim and Rehder (2011).”

• cites Kim and Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Purnomo et al. (2014) found that students' performance in computation was better than their understanding about the concept of numbers, especially in conceptualizing density or proportions among fractions and decimals.

“Results showed “students' performance in computation was better than their understanding about the concept of numbers” (Purnomo et al., 2014, p. 77) and especially in conceptualizing density or proportions among factions and decimals -a more abstract conception.”

• cites Purnomo et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Roelle et al. (2014) suggested that generative questioning required by focused prompts was more beneficial to memory retrieval in eighth-graders than merely repeating content word-for-word.

“Roelle et al. (2014)also suggested that the generative questioning required by the focused prompts was more beneficial to memory retrieval in the study's eighth-graders than was merely repeating content word-for-word.”

• cites Roelle et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Purnomo et al. (2014) found that less than half of students tested showed strength on understanding the meaning and concept of numbers or applying knowledge and number sense while showing strength in computations from memorized algorithms.

“In the study, less than half of students tested showed strength on “understanding the meaning and concept of numbers” or “applying knowledge and number sense” (Purnomo et al., 2014, p. 74) while showing strength in computations from memorized algorithms.”

• cites Purnomo et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The paper infers that Kim and Rehder's (2011) results are significant in that they add to the body of knowledge about how humans learn, how learning affects and is affected by executive functions such as attention, and how instructors can help activate prior knowledge by presenting concepts in related as opposed to unrelated categories.

“While Kim and Rehder's (2011) study involved adult subjects, the results are significant in that it adds to the body of knowledge about how humans learn, how that learning affects and is affected by executive functions such as attention, and how instructors can help activate prior knowledge by presenting concepts in related as opposed to unrelated categories.”

• cites Kim and Rehder's (2011)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kim and Rehder (2011) found that learning occurred in fewer blocks with fewer total errors in the related than in the unrelated conditions.

“In the learning block, Kim and Rehder (2011) found that “learning occurred in fewer blocks with fewer total errors in the related than in the unrelated” (p.654) conditions”

• cites Kim and Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Yuksel (2014) found that students' prior attitudes about mathematics were not significantly associated to their posttest scores.

“Students' prior attitudes about mathematics were not “significantly associated to their posttest scores” (Yuksel, 2014(Yuksel, , p. 1456)).”

• cites Yuksel, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to Purnomo et al. (2014), students' understanding was very related to the procedural understanding rather than conceptual.

“According to Purnomo et al. (2014), “students' understanding was very related to the procedural understanding” rather than conceptual, according to (p. 82).”

• cites Purnomo et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Kim and Rehder (2011) discussed that knowledge-induced attention shifts can be both a cause and an effect of learning; prior knowledge can direct attention to information needed for learning; attention shifts can also reflect learning that has already occurred.

“The researchers discussed possible implications for learning in that “knowledge-induced attention shifts can be both a cause and an effect of learning” while “prior knowledge can direct attention to information needed for learning” and “attention shifts can also reflect learning that has already occurred,” (Kim & Rehder, 2011, p. 658)”

• cites Kim & Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Roelle et al. (2014) posited that learners who received specific relevance instructions might have had more working memory capacity left to effectively execute attending processes rather than searching prior knowledge for relevance.

“and that “learners who received specific relevance instructions might have had more working memory capacity left to effectively execute the attending processes” (p.12) rather than searching prior knowledge for relevance.”

• cites Roelle et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Trivium-based practitioners would add that abstract concepts should be taught at about sixth grade at the onset of logic phase and only after mastery of foundational computations.

“Developmental theorists would agree; Trivium-based practitioners would add that abstract concepts should be taught at about sixth grade at the onset of logic phase and only after mastery of foundational computations (Spencer, 1996).”

• cites Spencer, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Purnomo et al. (2014) found that when given the chance to solve a problem by applying relationships among numbers, students overwhelmingly (nearly 70%) chose to stick to strict computation rules which had proved correct on simpler problems.

“Additionally, when given the chance to solve a problem by applying relationships among numbers, students overwhelmingly (nearly 70%) chose to stick to “strict computation rules” (Purnomo et al., 2014, p. 80) which had proved correct on simpler problems.”

• cites Purnomo et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kim and Rehder (2011) noted this finding as the first direct confirmation that knowledge directs attention to knowledge-relevant information.

“This finding was noted as the “first direct confirmation” that “knowledge directs attention to knowledge-relevant information” (Kim & Rehder, 2011, p. 658).”

• cites Kim & Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to Lee and Chen (2014), many junior high school students have not yet reached Piaget's formal operations stage, where symbols are used for reasoning and justification.

“According to Lee and Chen (2014), many junior high school students have not yet reached Piaget's formal operations stage, where symbols are used for reasoning and justification.”

• cites Lee and Chen, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Roelle et al. (2014) found that focused processing prompts led to higher scores on the conceptual knowledge test when combined with reduced explanations compared to complete explanations.

“Furthermore, “focused processing prompts led to higher scores on the conceptual knowledge test when they were combined with reduced explanations compared to complete explanations” (Roelle et al., 2014, p. 11).”

• cites Roelle et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kim and Rehder (2011) posited that the better learning of related versus neutral dimensions was partially but not fully mediated by the extra attention they received.

“leading them to posit that the better learning of related versus neutral dimensions was partially but not fully mediated by the extra attention they received (Kim & Rehder, 2011).”

• cites Kim & Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Kim and Rehder (2011) found a greater chance of fixating the related dimensions and that learners were more likely to fixate the related dimensions than the neutral ones in all sub blocks but only after one completed block.

“Results confirmed a “greater chance of fixating the related dimensions” (Kim & Rehder, 2011, p. 656) and that “learners were more likely to fixate the related dimensions than the neutral ones in all sub blocks” (Kim & Rehder, 2011, p. 656) but only after one completed block.”

• cites Kim & Rehder, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The paper infers that based on cognitive-developmental theorists and previous research, current researchers should expect to find higher achievement from students in Christian schools recognizing developmental stages and encouraging mastery of measureable skills in order to place students at challenging and developmentally-appropriate levels.

“Based on the cognitive-developmental theorists and previous research, current researchers should expect to find higher achievement from students in Christian schools recognizing developmental stages and encouraging mastery of measureable skills in order to place students at challenging and developmentally-appropriate levels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Domain theorists suggest that social knowledge and decision making work across cultures and reside in one of three universal domains: conventional, personal, and moral.

“Yap (2014) further described morality by way of “domain theorists” (p.300) who suggested that “social knowledge and decision making” (p.300) work across cultures and “reside in one of three universal domains: conventional, personal and moral” (p.300).”

• cites Yap (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Students provided with several frameworks to analyze cost/benefits of moral issues such as genetic engineering of foods and human embryos tended to use them and tended to try to balance rights, maximize benefits, and reconcile decisions based on Christian values.

“Among Yap’s (2014) findings were that students who were provided with several frameworks within which to analyze cost/benefits of moral issues such as genetic engineering of foods and human embryos tended to use them and tended to try to balance rights, maximize benefits, and reconcile decisions based on Christian values.”

• cites Yap (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cervetti and Hiebert (2015) stated that acquiring a knowledge base can aid struggling readers as well as help students understand complex and ambiguous texts.

“Acquiring a knowledge base can aid struggling readers as well as help students understand “complex and ambiguous texts-the kinds of texts that they increasingly encounter in content area learning” (Cervetti & Heibert, 2015, p. 259).”

• cites Cervetti & Heibert, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cervetti and Hiebert (2015) stated that there is compelling evidence that growth in reading engagement and reading comprehension is accelerated when students read in order to prepare an argument, develop a concept or investigate a phenomenon.

“According to Cervetti and Heibert (2015), “there is compelling evidence that growth in reading engagement and reading comprehension is accelerated” (p.263) when students read in order to prepare an argument, develop a concept or investigate a phenomenon.”

• cites Cervetti and Heibert, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gaillard et al. (2011) found significant but reduced developmental differences in working memory when accounting for age.

“When accounting for age, the researchers found significant but reduced developmental differences in working memory.”

• cites Gaillard et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Null (2006) called for the return of morality in the teaching of teachers, pointing to the 20th century as the turning of the tide when morality was discarded by American institutions of higher education.

“Null (2006) called for the return of morality in the teaching of teachers, pointing to the 20 th century as the turning of the tide when morality was “discarded” (p.xxviii) by American institutions of higher education.”

• cites Null, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Phillips (2015) stated that this development of mind and morals shaping citizen scholars was the foundation of the American representative democracy.

“This development of mind and morals shaping citizen scholars was said to be the foundation of the American representative democracy.”

• cites Phillips, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

May (2010) stated that the ability to engage in excellent contemplative activity is developed, and therefore depends upon certain inner resources, both intellectual and affective, for its realization.

“May (2010) agreed, stating that “the ability to engage in excellent contemplative activity is developed, and therefore depends upon certain 'inner resources,' both intellectual and affective, for its realization” (p.xi).”

• cites May, 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cervetti and Hiebert (2015) stated that building a sound knowledge base in all study disciplines or topics is closely linked with reading and writing skills.

“According to Cervetti and Hiebert (2015), Building a sound knowledge base in all study disciplines or topics is closely linked with reading and writing skills.”

• cites Cervetti and Hiebert, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

While charter school students performed no better than their traditional-method public school counterparts, private Christian school students outperformed public school students on standardized tests.

“Jeynes’ (2012a) extensive meta-analysis of 90 studies found that while charter school students performed no better than their traditional-method public school counterparts, private Christian school students outperformed public school students on standardized tests.”

• cites Jeynes (2012a)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Null (2006) stated that scientists may deal in abstractions of knowledge and information, but teachers wrestle with moral decisions day in and day out.

“Scientists may deal in abstractions of knowledge and information, according to Null (2006), but teachers wrestle with moral decisions day in and day out.”

• cites Null, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Decision making in socio-scientific situations falls into one of four categories, with religious beliefs being only an alternate or diminished fourth considered by socio-scientists.

“Decision making in these situations falls into one of four categories, according to Yap (2014), with religious beliefs being only an alternate or diminished fourth considered by socio-scientists.”

• cites Yap (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Gaillard et al. (2011) found that age-related increases in processing efficiency were one of the main factors in the development of working memory; when processing efficiency was kept constant across ages, there are still developmental differences.

“Gaillard et al. (2011) found that age-related increases in processing efficiency were one of the main factors in the development of working memory; when processing efficiency was kept constant across ages, “there are still developmental differences” (p.477).”

• cites Gaillard et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The basic process of making value choices seems to be inherent in humans but can be directed and developed.

“The basic process of making value choices seems to be inherent in humans but can be directed and developed, according to Kim and Sankey (2009).”

• cites Kim & Sankey, 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gaillard et al. (2011) found that response times were significantly longer for younger children in each task except for the recitation of the numerical string.

“According to Gaillard et al. (2011), “response times were significantly longer for younger children in each task (p <.001) except for the recitation of the numerical string in which the difference did not reach significance, t(37) = 1.78, p = .08”(p.471).”

• cites Gaillard et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In spite of being based on fundamentally different worldviews, Christian schools still look, to a large extent, the same as their public school counterparts.

“Boerema (2011) added that “in spite of being based on fundamentally different worldviews, Christian schools still look, to a large extent, the same as their public school counterparts” (p.42).”

• cites Boerema (2011)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gaillard et al. (2011) posited that these results indicated that children employ active mechanisms for maintenance and restoration of memory traces that develop with age.

“The researchers posited that these results indicated “that children employ active mechanisms for maintenance and restoration of memory traces that develop with age” (Gaillard et al., 2011, p. 469).”

• cites Gaillard et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kim and Sankey described a recursive and integrative model for understanding the development of moral judgment in youngsters post-Piaget.

“In researchers Kim and Sankey’s (2009) review of research into morality and developmental psychology, the authors described a recursive and integrative model for use in understanding the development of moral judgment in youngsters post-Piaget.”

• cites Kim & Sankey, 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cervetti and Hiebert (2015) stated that having a good knowledge base, including topical and real world knowledge, has been shown to help students in the third grade and older develop inferential reasoning as well as higher order thinking skills.

“Moreover, having a good knowledge base, including topical and real world knowledge, has been shown to help students in the third grade and older develop inferential reasoning as well as higher order thinking skills (Cervetti & Hiebert, 2015).”

• cites Cervetti & Hiebert, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Smith et al. (2013) stated that evidence garnered from actual classroom experience by practitioners would be more typical and have external validity and relevance as opposed to research-based internal validity and rigor.

“In contrast, Smith et al. (2013) stated that evidence garnered from actual classroom experience by practitioners would be more typical and have external validity and relevance as opposed to research-based internal validity and rigor.”

• cites Smith et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Smith et al. (2013) posited that evidence-based practices purporting to increase rigor frequently represent efficacious practices shown to work under ideal conditions, rather than effective practices that work in typical conditions.

“Researchers Smith et al. (2013) posited that evidence-based practices purporting to increase rigor “frequently represent efficacious practices shown to work under ideal conditions, rather than effective practices that work in typical conditions” (p.147).”

• cites Smith et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cervetti and Hiebert (2015) stressed that knowledge is the commodity of the digital-global age and that in order for students to utilize prior knowledge, they must have built up a foundational base of knowledge through reading a variety of texts.

“Cervetti and Heibert (2015) stressed that “knowledge is the commodity of the digital-global age” (p.264) and that in order for students to utilize prior knowledge, they must have built up a foundational base of knowledge through reading a variety of texts”

• cites Cervetti and Heibert, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gaillard et al. (2011) found when younger children were allowed more time to refresh memory in ratio to processing speed differences, they performed at the same level as their older peers.

“When the researchers allowed younger children more time to refresh memory in ratio to processing speed differences in the third experiment, it made them “perform at the same level as their older peers” (Gaillard et al., 2011, p. 276)”

• cites Gaillard et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Gaillard et al. (2011) found no significant effect of age but a significant effect of pace, with faster paces inducing lower performance by two percent each step.

“An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the rate of correct responses looking both at respondent ages and pace (fast, medium, or slow) which did not reveal “any significant effect of age” but it did reveal “a significant effect of pace, with faster paces inducing lower performance” (Gaillard et al. 2011, p. 472) by two percent each step”

• cites Gaillard et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Students were able to develop critical thinking strategies with an emphasis that includes both the affective and the cognitive aspects in science learning by using the ethical frameworks given to the experimental group.

“Yap (2014) found that students were able to develop “critical thinking strategies with an emphasis that includes both the affective and the cognitive aspects in science learning” (p.315) by using the ethical frameworks given to the experimental group.”

• cites Yap (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Socio-scientific issues, including genetic alterations of human beings, life and death, health care, and reproductive procedures, are moral issues.

“Yap (2014) explained that “socio-scientific issues” (p.300), including genetic alterations of human beings, life and death, health care, and reproductive procedures are moral issues.”

• cites Yap (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Issues relegated to the moral domain are considered universally recognized based on conceptions of human welfare, justice and rights.

“Issues relegated to the moral domain are considered as universally recognized “based on conceptions of human welfare, justice and rights” (Yap, 2014, p. 300).”

• cites Yap (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gaillard et al. (2011) found the difference was eliminated when the time available to reactivate memory traces was tailored to the processing speed of each age group.

“The difference “was eliminated when the time available to reactivate memory traces was tailored to the processing speed of each age group” (Gaillard et al., 2011, p. 469).”

• cites Gaillard et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gaillard et al. (2011) found that recall performance varies as a function of the cognitive load invoked by the processing component of the task.

“Since “recall performance varies as a function of the cognitive load invoked by the processing component of the task” (Gaillard et al., 2011, p. 471)”

• cites Gaillard et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Gaillard et al. (2011) found expected better performance in the older group even though processing times were assumed to have been equalized, but the effect size was smaller than in experiment one, thus processing efficiency and the time devoted to processing alone cannot account for all of the age-related differences in working memory spans.

“Results returned the expected better performance in the older group even though processing times were assumed to have been equalized, but the effect size was smaller than in experiment one, “thus, processing efficiency and the time devoted to processing alone cannot account for all of the age-related differences” (Gaillard et al., 2011, p. 475) in working memory spans.”

• cites Gaillard et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Bagley (1911b) asserted that the love of truth, work, respect for law and order and a spirit of cooperation must come predominantly from school influences.

“Bagley (1911b) asserted that the love of truth, work, respect for law and order and a spirit of cooperation must come “predominantly from school influences” (p.44).”

• cites Bagley, 1911bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

As an alternative to the public school system, Christian schools have taken on the task of explicitly adding a faith component to their educational program but all too often find themselves falling into the pit of equating the textbooks with the curriculum.

“Boerema (2011) stated further that “as an alternative to the public school system, Christian schools have taken on the task of explicitly adding a faith component to their educational program” (p.36) but all too often find themselves falling into the pit of equating the textbooks with the curriculum.”

• cites Boerema (2011)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Phillips (2015) credited the blackboard as first used at West Point, with being the symbol of both mental discipline and moral and physical deportment developed by widespread and common education during the beginning of the American nineteenth century.

“Phillips (2015) credited the blackboard as first used at West Point, with being the symbol of both “mental discipline” as well as “moral and physical deportment” developed by widespread and common education during the beginning of the American nineteenth century.”

• cites Phillips, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is a value component in all learning, memory and action.

“There is “a value component in all learning, memory and action” (Kim & Sankey, 2009, p. 296), and Kim and Sankey (2009) called for a renewed emphasis on moral instruction in schools.”

• cites Kim & Sankey, 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Culture and worldview were critical to community identity, to visioning educational outcomes, and to learning in school science.

“Keane (2008) found that culture and worldview were “critical to community identity, to visioning educational outcomes, and to learning in school science” (2008, p. 621).”

• cites Keane (2008) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Peterson reran the Lubienski's analysis using different socio-economic accounting methods and found the opposite conclusions.

“Most notably, Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government Professor Paul E. Peterson reran the Lubienski’s analysis using different socio-economic accounting methods and found the opposite conclusions (Yettick, 2014).”

• cites Yettick, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The ACCS rejects all but private sources of revenue in order to assure autonomy, separating it from public charter schools and other religious schools that accept vouchers or other government funds.

“While some Evangelical Protestant schools accept funding from government sources, the ACCS (Blakey, n.d.) rejects all but private sources of revenue in order to assure autonomy; this separates it from public charter schools and other religious schools that accept vouchers or other government funds.”

• cites Blakey, n.d.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Differences identified in this study serve to inform educational methods as well as theory in regard to the value of rigorous standards, learning how to learn/metacognition, and developmentally-structured instruction in classrooms today.

“Differences identified in this study serve to inform educational methods as well as theory in regard to the value of rigorous standards, learning how to learn/metacognition, and developmentallystructured instruction in classrooms today.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mind, Brain, and Education (MBE) is a new interdisciplinary field seeking to combine research and practice among the biological, psychological, and educational sciences.

“According to Stein and Fischer (2011), Mind, Brain, and Education (MBE) is a new field of study and is an interdisciplinary field seeking to combine research and practice among the biological, psychological, and educational sciences.”

• cites Stein & Fischer, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among four domains of social context, motivational beliefs, perceived invitations from any stakeholder to become involved, perceived life context, and individual family's culture, it was the parents' perceptions of invitations from children and teachers that were the most robust and consistent predictors of parents' home-based and school-based involvement behaviors across grade levels and across

“In writing to the school counselors’ practice, research theorists Hoover-Dempsey, Shenker, and Walker (2010) found that among the four domains of social context, motivational beliefs, perceived invitations from any stakeholder to become involved, “perceived life context (time and energy, skills and knowledge)” (p.29), and individual family’s culture, it was the “parents’ perceptions of invitations”

• cites Hoover-Dempsey, Shenker, and Walker (2010)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Parental involvement had a positive impact on children's behavioral outcomes; more parental involvement led to a lower likelihood of arrest, suspension or getting in trouble.

“Results after regression showed “that parental involvement had a positive impact on children’s behavioral outcomes.More parental involvement led to a lower likelihood of arrest, suspension or getting in trouble” (Neymotin, 2013, p. 444).”

• cites Neymotin, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Classical Christians, as defined by the term Evangelical, trust the Bible as the yardstick of what is good, true, and worthy.

“Classical Christians, as defined by the term Evangelical (Bryant, 2011), trust the Bible as the yardstick of what is good, true, and worthy.”

• cites Bryant, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Validity studies show a strong correlation of .50 between College Board assessments and first-year college grade point averages.

“According to The College Board (2014b), validity studies show a strong correlation of .50 between its assessments and first-year college grade point averages (Shaw, 2015).”

• cites The College Board, 2014bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Shaw, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Parental engagement in student learning results in raised achievement, raised self-esteem, increased motivation and engagement of students.

“Goodall and Montgomery (2014) found evidence in the literature supporting parental engagement in student learning as resulting in “raised achievement, raised self-esteem, increased motivation and engagement” (p.406) of students.”

• cites Goodall and Montgomery (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Parental involvement had a statistically significant effect on academic performance for both white and minority students.

“Jeynes (2007) found in his meta-analysis of 52 studies that parental involvement had a statistically significant effect on academic performance for both white and minority students.”

• cites Jeynes (2007) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The influence of religious schools versus public schools on student educational outcomes has remained quite consistent over time.

“While the meta-analysis showed no significant change over the 20-30-year period studied, this indicated that “the influence of religious schools versus public schools on student educational outcomes has remained quite consistent over time” (Jeynes, 2004, p. 197).”

• cites Jeynes, 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most American parents are not intimately involved in the day-to-day instruction of their children.

“However, most American parents are not intimately involved in the day-to-day instruction of their children (Hiatt-Michael (2001).”

• cites Hiatt-Michael (2001)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Mastery of fundamental knowledge by memorization at younger ages is normal and should be utilized.

“Nasrollahi-Mouziraji and Nasrollahi-Mouziraji (2015) found in their review that mastery of fundamental knowledge by memorization at younger ages is normal and should be utilized.”

• cites Nasrollahi-Mouziraji and Nasrollahi-Mouziraji (2015) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Latin instruction increases vocabulary, grammar and reading comprehension skills as well as other language acquisition skills.

“According to VanTassel-Baska (2004), Latin instruction increases vocabulary, grammar and reading comprehension skills as well as other language acquisition skills.”

• cites VanTassel-Baska (2004)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Christ-centered, parent-honoring, more traditional models of classroom pedagogy with the teacher-as-expert would not be expected to function well in a student-centered classroom layout.

“Christ-centered, parenthonoring, more traditional models of classroom pedagogy with the teacher-as-expert would not be expected to function well in a student-centered classroom layout.”

May combine two claims.

The study found a statistically significant difference in PSAT mean scores between Classical Christian and non-Classical Christian schools, indicating a positive effect of instructional method on PSAT mean score.

“A statistically significant difference was found after analyzing the data, indicating both a positive effect of the independent variable of instructional method on the dependent variable of PSAT mean score as well as a need for further research to determine which variables correlate to the significant difference found.”

• Also stated in: § CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS Overview · hedged

  “This study indicated that students who are educated utilizing the Essentialist philosophy of acquiring a base of knowledge before moving to higher cognitive levels of analysis, synthesis, and application as illustrated by the developmental model of the Greco-Roman Trivium utilized in Classical Christian schools scored significantly higher on the PSAT than students who were educated utilizing non-”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The samples were a random sample from the populations.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two groups of schools are comparable except for the educational philosophy (Classical vs non-Classical), with no confounding variables affecting PSAT mean scores.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The school-reported PSAT mean scores are accurate and comparable across schools.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A positive correlation was indicated between training parents to work with students on homework (interactive) and higher student achievement and well-being, especially for younger students.

“In Patall, Cooper, and Robinson’s (2008) meta-analysis and synthesis “of 14 studies that manipulated parent training for homework involvement” (p.1039) as well as “a meta-analysis of 22 samples from 20 studies correlating parent involvement and achievement-related outcomes” (p.1039), a positive correlation was indicated between training parents to work with students on homework (interactive) and”

• cites Patall, Cooper, and Robinson’s (2008) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The strongest evidence for parental involvement was correlated to school attempts at contacting and accommodating parents.

“In seeking to study why some parents do not get more involved in their children’s schooling, Shah’s (2009) study of “data from 324 Latino parents with children in the Chicago Public Schools” (p.214) found the strongest evidence for parental involvement correlated to school attempts at contacting and accommodating parents.”

• cites Shah’s (2009) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This distinction makes parental commitment and involvement paramount to the Classical Christian educational model's success.

“This distinction, according to retired ACCS Executive Director Blakey (n.d.) makes parental commitment and involvement paramount to the Classical Christian educational model’s success.”

• cites Blakey (n.d.)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Parental involvement led to better child behavioral outcomes at the high school level.

“Neymotin (2013) found from the 1988 National Educational and Longitudinal Survey (NELS) data that “parental involvement led to better child behavioral outcomes at the high school level” (p.433).”

• cites Neymotin (2013) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Stein and Fischer insisted that the study of morality be included in educational research and practice and that there is such a standard as "good".

“In this call for comprehensive models, Stein and Fischer (2011) not only insisted that the study of morality be included in educational research and practice, they insisted there is such a standard as “good” (p.57).”

• cites Stein & Fischer, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For urban students, positive home to school relationships improved academic performance across grades, ages and social classes, including minority populations.

“Jeynes (2004) found that for urban students, positive home to school relationships improved academic performance across grades, ages and social classes, including minority populations.”

• cites Jeynes (2004)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The most economically-disadvantaged students received the most benefit from faith-based schools.

“Jeynes (2012b) found that the most economically-disadvantaged students received the most benefit from faith-based schools: “It appears that one of the most accessible means of narrowing the achievement gap will not require billions of dollars of additional government funding, but rather simply facilitating schools of faith to do what they already do quite well” (p.167).”

• cites Jeynes (2012b)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A Bonferroni correction was made and the alpha level was set at p < .0125 to help avoid a Type I error due to multiple dependent variables.

“Due to multiple dependent variables, a Bonferroni correction was made and the alpha level was to be set at p < .0125 to help avoid a Type I error.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Latino representation within the school can have a positive effect on the psychological orientations of Latino parents that lead to an increase in their involvement.

“Shah (2009) controlled for parental and school characteristics including socio-economic status and school policy differences utilizing Cronbach’s alpha to measure internal consistency and validity of survey questions and concluded that “Latino representation within the school can have a positive effect on the psychological orientations of Latino parents that lead to an increase in their”

• cites Shah (2009) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The PSAT is recognized by college scholarship awarding agencies as a good predictor of academic success measured by college readiness.

“The PSAT is recognized by college scholarship awarding agencies as a good predictor of academic success measured by college readiness (The College Board, 2011.”

• cites The College Board, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Parental involvement wanes for various reasons as children age, including more challenging work schedules and the belief that parental involvement is not needed as much as children age.

“Jeynes (2007) posited in a meta-analysis of 52 studies that parental involvement wanes for various reasons as children age, including more challenging work schedules and the belief that parental involvement is not needed as much as children age.”

• cites Jeynes (2007) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Instruction on how to study and how to learn were as beneficial as the help completing homework itself.

“In Huang and Cho’s (2009) mixed methods study on seven high functioning after school homework programs (not in homes), indications were that instruction on how to study and how to learn were as beneficial as the help completing homework itself.”

• cites Huang and Cho’s (2009) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Minority students who come from two-parent families of faith have no achievement gap, and among children of color raised in single-parent families when those adolescents and younger are people of faith, the achievement gap is cut in half.

“At the same time, in another meta-analysis, Jeynes (2012b) stated that minority students who come from two-parent families of faith have no achievement gap and “among children of color raised in single-parent families when those adolescents and younger are people of faith, the achievement gap is cut in half” (p.167).”

• cites Jeynes (2012b)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).