The effects of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes: A meta-analysis of research findings.

Patall, Erika A.; Cooper, Harris; Robinson, Jorgianne Civey

doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.270

Cited by 1,101Motivation and Self-Concept in SportsEducation, Achievement, and GiftednessExperimental Behavioral Economics Studies

The effects of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes: A meta-analysis of research findings.

Patall, Erika A., Cooper, Harris, Robinson, Jorgianne Civey·2008·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.270

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Abstract

A meta-analysis of 41 studies examined the effect of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes in a variety of settings with both child and adult samples. Results indicated that providing choice enhanced intrinsic motivation, effort, task performance, and perceived competence, among other outcomes. Moderator tests revealed the effect of choice on intrinsic motivation was stronger (a) for instructionally irrelevant choices compared to choices made between activities, versions of a task, rewards, and instructionally relevant options, (b) when 2 to 4 successive choices were given, (c) when rewards were not given after the choice manipulation, (d) when participants given choice were compared to the most controlling forms of control groups, (e) for children compared to adults, (f) for designs that yoked choice and control conditions compared to matched designs in which choice was reduced or designs in which nonyoked, nonmatched controls were used, and (g) when the experiment was conducted in a laboratory embedded in a natural setting. Implications for future research and applications to real-world settings are discussed.

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People who perceive they can make meaningful choices are likely to be intrinsically motivated, meaning they are more likely to find activities enjoyable and interesting.
“Consistent evidence across many life contexts indicates that people who perceive they can make meaningful choices are likely to be intrinsically motivated, meaning that they are more likely to find activities enjoyable and interesting [99].”
From Framework for the design and delivery of organized physical activity sessions for children and adolescents: rationale and description of the ‘SAAFE’ teaching principles (2017) · cites this paper as [99]
Based on meta-analytic evidence, two to four opportunities for choice within a session is ideal.
“Based on meta-analytic evidence [99], two to four opportunities for choice within a session is ideal.”
From Framework for the design and delivery of organized physical activity sessions for children and adolescents: rationale and description of the ‘SAAFE’ teaching principles (2017) · cites this paper as [99]
Students who complete homework outperform those who do not, but as far as parental help with homework, results depended upon parental expertise in the subject matter.
“The researchers concluded that students who complete homework outperform those who do not, but as far as parental help with homework, results depended upon parental expertise in the subject matter.”
From Differences of Mean Scores on the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) for Classical Christian Schools Compared to Non-Classical Christian Schools (2019) · cites this paper as Patall et al. (2008)
A positive correlation was indicated between training parents to work with students on homework (interactive) and higher student achievement and well-being, especially for younger students.
“In Patall, Cooper, and Robinson’s (2008) meta-analysis and synthesis “of 14 studies that manipulated parent training for homework involvement” (p.1039) as well as “a meta-analysis of 22 samples from 20 studies correlating parent involvement and achievement-related outcomes” (p.1039), a positive correlation was indicated between training parents to work with students on homework (interactive) and”
From Differences of Mean Scores on the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) for Classical Christian Schools Compared to Non-Classical Christian Schools (2019) · cites this paper as Patall, Cooper, and Robinson’s (2008)
There are now a more substantial set of findings in which choice, perceived control, and other forms of autonomy support produce superior performance and/or learning than control or yoked conditions without choice.
“Further, as the autonomy studies suggest, there are now a more substantial set of findings in which choice, perceived control, and other forms of autonomy support produce superior performance and/or learning than do control or yoked conditions without choice (see also Murayama, Matsumoto, Izuma, Sugiura, Ryan, Deci et al., 2015;Patall, Cooper, & Robinson, 2008).”
From Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning (2016) · cites this paper as Patall, Cooper, & Robinson, 2008

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Authors: Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C.
Affiliations: Duke University (US)
ORCID: Patall, Erika A.
Cooper, Harris
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2008
Volume: 134
Issue: 2
Pages: 270-300
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.270
OpenAlex: W2081900501
Cited by: 1,101
References: 83
Citations by year: 2026: 67 · 2025: 72 · 2024: 77 · 2023: 156 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 75 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 70 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 39 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 38 · 2012: 33
FWCI: 2.79
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Safety Research › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
Keywords: choice, intrinsic motivation, effort, task performance, perceived competence, reward, children versus adults, self-determination theory
MeSH terms: Achievement, Choice Behavior, Humans, Motivation

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The effects of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes: A meta-analysis of research findings.

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