Five facets mindfulness questionnaire—reliability and factor structure: a Swedish version
Abstract
Two studies were conducted to assess the Swedish version of the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), which was originally created by Baer et al. (2006). The aim of Study 1 was to examine the psychometric properties of the FFMQ using data from 495 individuals. Quantitative and qualitative analyses resulted in a reduction of the scale by 10 items. Psychometric properties, including internal consistency of the revised instrument, were examined. The Swedish FFMQ provides results comparable to those obtained by Baer. Cronbach's alphas were high for all the facets. The Swedish FFMQ appears to be a potentially useful tool in measuring mindfulness among Swedish participants. The aim of Study 2 was to test the suggested hierarchical five-factor solution and construct validity, using a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Similar to findings for the English version of the FFMQ, the CFA showed that the Observing facet was not a significant part of an overall self-reported mindfulness structure in a Swedish population with little meditation experience.
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The measures were translated and back translated for previous studies, except the Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire (CFQ) which was translated for this study by a group of researchers with long experience in acceptance-, mindfulness-, and value-based interventions.
“The measures have been translated and back translated for previous studies [33, 36–38], except the Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire (CFQ) that was translated for this study by a group of researchers with long experience in acceptance-, mindfulness-, and value-based interventions.”
From Psychological inflexibility explains distress in parents whose children have chronic conditions (2018) · cites this paper as [38]
The Swedish version of the FFMQ has 10 less items and a different factor structure than the English version.
“In addition, the Swedish version of the FFMQ has 10 less items and a different factor structure than the English version [40].”
From Self-Reported Trait Mindfulness and Affective Reactivity: A Motivational Approach Using Multiple Psychophysiological Measures (2015) · cites this paper as [40]
Various short forms of the FFMQ have been proposed, indicating that its scale composition may need improvement.
“Moreover, various short forms of the FFMQ have been proposed [18], [20], [22], [26], indicating that its scale composition may need improvement.”
It may not be ruled out statistically that age, or cohort effects, were fully or partially responsible for the observed associations of meditation practice and mindfulness [22].
“However, statistically, it may not be ruled out that age, or cohort effects, were fully or partially responsible for the observed associations of meditation practice and mindfulness [22].”
Previous research suggests increases of mindfulness with practice [2],[22],[25],[59],[60].
“Previous research suggests increases of mindfulness with practice [2], [22], [25], [59], [60].”
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“Reversing the order of entry of the predictors showed that DBTP entered in step 1 was a significant predictor of PSS score (R2 = .18 for DBTP-o; R2 = .31 for DBTP-e) and that FFMQ entered in step 2 accounted for additional variance (ΔR2 = .20 entered after DBTP-o;ΔR2 = .13 entered after DBTP-e).”
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“The present study only used the Non-judging (α = .82) and the Non-reactivity scale (α = .75; Lilja et al., 2011).”
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“The Swedish version of the FFMQ has shown good psychometric properties, with results comparable to those obtained by Baer et al. (Baer et al. 2006, 2008; Lilja et al. 2011).”
ResultEvaluation of the Psychometric Properties of the Five Facet of Mindfulness Questionnaire
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“FFMQ We used the Swedish Version of the Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), which has 29 items that measure five factors representing elements of mindfulness (Lilja et al. 2011).”
MethodReflective functioning, affect consciousness, and mindfulness: Are these different functions?
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“Keywords: factor structure, validity, mindfulness, short inventory of mindfulness capability INTRODUCTION Mindfulness initially appeared as therapy in clinical and medical fields (Kabat-Zinn, 1982).”
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“For instance, mindfulness seems mainly stable during adolescence (e.g., K. W. Brown, West, Loverich, & Biegel, 2011) and adulthood (e.g., Baer et al., 2008), although it may increase during adulthood (e.g., Lilja et al., 2011).”
BackgroundCortázar, N., Calvete, E., Fernández‐González, L., & Orue, I. (2019) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2019.1616206 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Scrutinizing the Components of Mindfulness: Insights from Current, Past, and Non-meditators
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“The FFMQ has been shown to have good internal consistency and test–retest reliability (Lilja et al., 2011; Veehof et al., 2011) and has been used in a range of mindfulness studies comprising large numbers of participants (Thompson & Waltz, 2010; Veehof et al., 2011; Cowdrey & Park, 2012).”
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“In addition, the Swedish version of the FFMQ has 10 less items and a different factor structure than the English version [40].”
BackgroundFive Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)
Baer, R. A., Gu, J., & Strauss, C. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77644-2_15-1 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
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“The construct validity of the scale is supported [36, 37] and the internal consistency for the total scale was acceptable (α = 0.”
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Heeren, A., Deplus, S., Peschard, V., Nef, F., Kotsou, I., Dierickx, C., Mondillon, L., Robinaugh, D. J., & Philippot, P. (2014) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0287-1 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Similar results have been reported in Italian (Romaneli and di Berardino 2010), Chinese (Deng et al. 2011), Spanish (Cebolla et al. 2012), Japanese (Sugiura et al. 2012), Dutch (de Bruin et al. 2012), and Swedish (Lilja et al. 2011).”
ResultKhaddouma, A. M., Gordon, K. C., & Bolden, J. (2015) · Couple and Family Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/cfp0000035 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
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“Alpha coefficients for the Swedish version of the FFMQ total scale and its five subscales ranged from 0.80 to 0.92 (Lilja et al., 2011).”
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“81).(34) The FFMQ is considered a secondary outcome measure, besides being a process measure.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe assessment of mindfulness skills: the “what” and the “how”
Iani, L., Lauriola, M., & Cafaro, V. (2017) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2017.1385738 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“The FFMQ was validated in different cultures, both in clinical and nonclinical studies (Curtiss & Klemanski, 2014; Lilja et al., 2011).”
MethodLymeus, F., Ahrling, M., Apelman, J., Florin, C. D. M., Nilsson, C., Vincenti, J., Zetterberg, A., Lindberg, P., & Hartig, T. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01560 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“We measured dispositional mindfulness with a short version of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al., 2006; Lilja et al., 2011).”
Psychometric properties of Persian version of five facets of mindfulness questionnaire
Khanjani, S., Foroughi, A., Bazani, M., Rafiee, S., Tamannaeifar, S., & Habibi, M. (2022) · Journal of Research in Medical Sciences · doi:10.4103/jrms.jrms_10_20 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Taylor, N. Z., & Millear, P. M. R. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.041 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Different versions of the FFMQ have been validated in a number of different countries, including France (Heeren, Douilliez, Peschard, Debrauwere, & Philippot, 2011), Sweden (Lilja et al., 2011) and China (Deng, Liu, Rodriguez, & Xia, 2011).”
BackgroundStjernswärd, S., & Hansson, L. I. (2016) · Informatics for Health and Social Care · doi:10.1080/17538157.2016.1177533 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Hartstone, J. M., & Medvedev, O. N. (2021) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-021-01731-4 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Moesch, K., Ivarsson, A., & Johnson, U. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jcsp.2019-0003 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Hedman, E., Hesser, H., Andersson, E., Axelsson, E., & Ljótsson, B. (2017) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2017.04.007 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Single, A., Bilevicius, E., Johnson, E. A., & Keough, M. T. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-019-1092-7 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Factor Structure and External Validity of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in Pregnancy
Kantrowitz-Gordon, I. (2018) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0768-0 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Duarte, J., Björkstrand, F. K., McCracken, L. M., & Perrin, S. G. (2022) · European Journal of Pain · doi:10.1002/ejp.2067 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“High levels of internal reliability have been found for the original (α = 0.82; Lilja et al., 2011) and the Swedish language version used in this study (α = 0.96).”
MethodInfluentialLönnberg, G., Niemi, M., Salomonsson, B., Bränström, R., Nissen, E., & Jonas, W. (2021) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-021-01658-w · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Lymeus, F., White, M. P., Lindberg, P., & Hartig, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.763650 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Lilja, J. L., Falkenström, F., Zelleroth, C., Jacobson, E., Risberg, S., Nissling, L., & Weineland, S. (2020) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12602 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationRizal, F., Egan, H. H., Cook, A., Keyte, R., & Mantzios, M. (2020) · Current Issues in Personality Psychology · doi:10.5114/cipp.2020.100792 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Johansson, R. (2013) · Linköping studies in behavioural science · doi:10.3384/diss.diva-100385 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“In addition, the Swedish 29-item version (Lilja et al., 2011) of the Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006) was included to measure the influence of general mindfulness skills.”
MethodSairanen, E., Lappalainen, R. I., Lappalainen, P., & Hiltunen, A. J. (2019) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.11.010 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“The measures have been translated and back-translated for previous studies (Alfonsson et al., 2017; Lilja et al., 2011; Lundgren & Parling, 2017; LundgrenNilsson et al., 2012), except for the CFQ, which was translated and back-translated for this study by a group of researchers with long experience in acceptance, mind…”
MethodLilja, J. L., Zelleroth, C., Axberg, U., & Norlander, T. (2016) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12302 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“In the current study, we administered the Five Facets of Mindfulness – Swedish version (FFMQ_SWE; Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer & Toney, 2006; Lilja, Frodi-Lundgren, Johansson Hanse et al., 2011), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) (Zigmond & Snaith, 1983; Lisspers, Nygren, Soederman, 1997) and Life Sati…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationMindfulness, Sustained Attention and Post-traumatic Stress in Tsunami Survivors
Hagen, C., Lien, L., Hauff, E., & Heir, T. (2016) · Psychology and Cognitive Sciences - Open Journal · doi:10.17140/pcsoj-2-115 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The Capacity for Self-Observation in Psychotherapy
Falkenström, F. (2012) · DiVA (Linkoping University) · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Jo, D., Im, S., Suh, D. E., Spencer, S. D., & Masuda, A. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-023-10076-2 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Relatedly, extant literature in self-report measures of mindfulness suggests that the nature of observing one’s experience is likely to vary qualitatively between individuals with and without a regular practice of mindfulness meditation (Baer et al., 2008; Lilja et al., 2011).”
BackgroundThe inner workings of anger: A network analysis of anger and emotion regulation
Larsson, J., Bjureberg, J., Zhao, X., & Hesser, H. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23622 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“A revised version of the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ ‐ Revised; Lilja et al., 2011), originally developed by Baer et al. (2006), was used to measure five different mindfulness strategies.”
Burić, I., Žderić, L., Onicas, A. I., Kolanović, M., & Collin, G. (2024) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2024.100507 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“This is not surprising given that, like several other studies ( Baer et al., 2006; Lilja et al., 2011; Baer et al., 2008; Michalak et al., 2016), our study found a non-significant correlation close to zero between Observing and Non-judging, and a significant correlation between Observing and…”
MethodResultIs mindfulness protective against PTSD? A neurocognitive study of 25 Tsunami disaster survivors
Hagen, C., Lien, L., Hauff, E., & Heir, T. (2016) · Journal of Negative Results in BioMedicine · doi:10.1186/s12952-016-0056-x · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The Relationship between Mindfulness and Burnout among Master of Social Work Students
Piatkowska, J. (2000) · doi:10.15760/etd.1961 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Similarly, the psychometrics of the Swedish version of the measure (Lilja et al., 2011), assessed in two separate studies, showed similar results to the original (Baer et al.”
ResultNymberg, P., Hansson, E. E., Stenman, E., Calling, S., Sundquist, K., Sundquist, J., & Zöller, B. (2018) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-018-2932-9 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Larsson, J., Bjureberg, J., & Hesser, H. (2023) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2821 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Refinement and Validation of the Balanced Inventory of Mindfulness-Related Skills (BIMS)
Padmanabham, S. S., Bilgrami, Z. R., Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., & Dam, N. T. V. (2021) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01590-5 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Sweeney, T., Morriss, R. K., Nixon, E., Guo, B., & Callaghan, P. (2021) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01573-6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
McCarren, L., & Kuoppamäki, S. (2025) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/67533 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The FFMQ-15 shows valid psychometric properties and can therefore be used in both health care settings and research settings [55].”
Initial Validation of the Mindful Presence Scale: The Issue of the Construal Level of Scale Items
Lengyel, A., Keczeli, D., Orosz, R., Bács, Z., Müller, A., Szőke, S., & Bába, É. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.626084 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Effects of an Online Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Intervention on Children’s Quality of Life
Sairanen, E., Lappalainen, R. I., Lappalainen, P., & Hiltunen, A. J. (2022) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-022-02234-z · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“The measures have been translated and back-translated for previous studies (Alfonsson et al., 2017; Lilja et al., 2011; Lundgren & Parling, 2017; Lundgren-Nilsson et al., 2012), except for the CFQ, which was translated for this study by a group of researchers with extensive experience with ACTbased interventions.”
MethodFive Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)
Baer, R. A., Gu, J., & Strauss, C. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-47219-0_15 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rådmark, L., Osika, W., Wallén, M. B., Nissen, E., Lönnberg, G., Bränström, R., Henje, E., Gardner, R. M., Fransson, E., Karlsson, H., et al. (2023) · BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth · doi:10.1186/s12884-023-05528-2 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The validated Swedish Version of the FFMQ contains 29 items that are used to assess five facets of mindfulness [5, 33].”
MethodRönne-Petersén, L., Niemi, M., Walach, H., Lavebratt, C., Yang, L. L., Gerdle, B., Ghafouri, B., & Falkenberg, T. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0308924 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The FFMQ is the most frequently used questionnaire for mindfulness [48] and has been validated in Sweden [49].”
Vernmark, K., Hursti, T. J., Blom, V., Asplund, R. P., Nathanson, E., Engelro, L., Radvogin, E., & Andersson, G. (2024) · Clinical Psychology in Europe · doi:10.32872/cpe.12899 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The internal consistency for the global scale is good (Cronbach’s alpha, α = .81). and it also has a high content validity (Lilja et al., 2011).”
The role of mindfulness in improving quality of life among student-athletes: a pilot mediation study
Johles, L., Molander, P., & Lundqvist, C. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1479584 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Nymberg, P., Calling, S., Stenman, E., Palmér, K., Hansson, E. E., Sundquist, K., Sundquist, J., & Zöller, B. (2021) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-021-00810-6 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
David, J., Berkovich‐Ohana, A., & Dor‐Ziderman, Y. (2025) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-025-06792-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The resulting Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.79, which are within the range of translations from other language (Lilja et al. 2011).”
InfluentialDifferential Pattern of Consequences of Self‐Compassion Across Gender
Musabiq, S., Santoso, G. P. A., Takwin, B., & Poerwandari, E. K. (2024) · Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology · doi:10.1155/2024/5564391 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Trait Mindfulness as a Mediator of Resilience, Depressive Symptoms, and Trauma Symptoms
Neelarambam, K. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/5817721 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Lilja, J. L., Frodi-Lundgren, A., Hanse, J. J., Josefsson, T., Lundh, L.-G., Sköld, C., Hansen, E., & Broberg, A. G.
- Affiliations
- University of Gothenburg (SE)
- Halmstad University (SE)
- Lund University (SE)
- Danderyds sjukhus (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Lilja, Josefine L.
- Venue
- Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2011-12
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 291-303
- ISSN
- 1650-6073 (ISSN-L)
- 1651-2316
- OpenAlex
- W2064472532
- Cited by
- 140
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 7.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Lund University Publications (Lund University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
- Keywords
- mindfulness, Swedish translation, psychometric properties, factor structure, construct validity, internal consistency, meditation experience, cross-cultural adaptation
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Age Factors, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Psychometrics, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sex Factors, Sweden, Translating, Reproducibility of Results, Meditation
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