Predicting Internet risks: a longitudinal panel study of gratifications-sought, Internet addiction symptoms, and social media use among children and adolescents
Open accessAbstract
This study used longitudinal panel survey data collected from 417 adolescents at 2 points in time 1 year apart. It examined relationships between Internet risks changes in Time 2 and social media gratifications-sought, Internet addiction symptoms, and social media use all measured at Time 1. By controlling for age, gender, education, and criterion variable scores in Internet addiction at Time 1, entertainment and instant messaging use at Time 1 significantly predicted increased Internet addiction measured at Time 2. The study also controlled for demographics and scores of criterion variables in Internet risks: targeted for harassment, privacy exposed, and pornographic or violent content consumed in Time 1. Gratifications-sought (including status-gaining, expressing opinions, and identity experimentation), Internet addiction symptoms (including withdrawal and negative life consequences), and social media use (in particular, blogs, and Facebook) significantly predicted Internet risk changes in Time 2. These findings suggest that, with their predictive power, these predictors at Time 1 could be used to identify those adolescents who are likely to develop Internet addiction symptoms and the likelihood of experiencing Internet risks based on their previous gratifications-sought, previous addiction symptoms, and their habits of social media use at Time 1.
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Only very recently, the focus has shifted toward younger population groups.
“Only very recently, the focus has shifted toward younger population groups [22-26].”
From Internet use and access, behavior, cyberbullying, and grooming: Results of an investigative whole city survey of adolescents (2017) · cites this paper as [26]
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A Systematic Review of Internet Communication Technology Use by Youth in Foster Care
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“Foster youth may indeed be at heightened risk when using ICTs, given their histories and experiences of victimization and other personal and interpersonal risk factors (Espinoza & Wright, 2018; Leung, 2014).”
BackgroundClarke, C., & Thévenon, O. (2022) · OECD papers on well-being and inequalities · doi:10.1787/a0ec330c-en · Cited by 20 · see citing works
de Jong, C., Kühne, R., Peter, J., van Straten, C. L., & Barco, À. (2019) · IEEE RO-MAN · doi:10.1109/ro-man46459.2019.8956319 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Given that hedonic and informative gratifications are well-established in the literature, respectively [1], [2], [4], [13], [14] and [1]–[3], [13], we largely based our measures on existing uses-and-gratifications measures for children.”
InfluentialSchmuck, D., Stević, A., Matthes, J., & Karsay, K. (2021) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448211011452 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Indonesian Adolescents' Online Opportunities and Risks
Luthfia, A., Triputra, P., & Hendriyani, H. (2019) · Jurnal ASPIKOM · doi:10.24329/aspikom.v4i1.445 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“One of consequences research that has been studied with U&G perspective was internet addiction and social media addiction (Baek, Cho, & Kim, 2014; Chin Hooi, 2011; Leung, 2008, 2014).”
BackgroundConnected but at Risk: Social Media Exposure and Psychiatric and Psychological Outcomes in Youth
Marano, G., Lisci, F. M., Rossi, S., Marzo, E. M., Boggio, G., Brisi, C., Traversi, G., Mazza, O., Pola, R., Gaetani, E., et al. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12101322 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Used alongside daily-diary data, these tools can test both pathways (social media → later symptoms and symptoms → later social media patterns), helping to adjudicate reverse-causation accounts and to identify when associations are most likely to be causal [68].”
Farhat, K., Aslam, W., Arif, I., & Ahmed, Z. (2021) · IIM Kozhikode Society & Management Review · doi:10.1177/22779752211000479 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“While in the development of addiction, gratification is found to act as a precipitating and perpetuating factor (Leung, 2014).”
BackgroundZhang, W., Jiang, L., Yu, M., Ma, R., Wang, T., Liang, X., He, R., Xu, C. H., Hu, S., Tan, Y., et al. (2024) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2023.0103 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“52 In contrast, online gaming, often involving collaboration with strangers, may impact sleep patterns differently.”
BackgroundMuraqabah intensification therapy (MIT): an alternative Islamic therapy for social media addiction
Harianti, W. S., Huwaida, R., Adriwiguna, N. S., & Qudsyi, H. (2022) · International Journal of Public Health Science (IJPHS) · doi:10.11591/ijphs.v11i1.21137 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
‘The Internet is all around us’: How children come to understand the Internet
Murray, T., & Buchanan, R. (2018) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Exploring social media use of Filipino learners
Gagalang, J. L. (2021) · Linguistics and Culture Review · doi:10.21744/lingcure.v6ns2.2034 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Correlates of Internet addiction in Turkish adolescents
Karaca, A., Demirci, N., Çağlar, E., & Ünlü, H. K. (2021) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106050 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Abbé, A., & Falissard, B. (2017) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/mental.7797 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Several studies have linked the use of OHCs to decline in mood, well-being, and quality of life [18-21].”
BackgroundDurmuş, M., Sarman, A., Çiftçi, N., & Durmuş, Y. (2025) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1111/jcap.70024 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Huang et al. (2023) reported a positive relationship between negative emotions and the risk of social media addiction, while Leung (2014) highlighted the mediating role of usage intensity.”
What Makes AI Addictive? The Role of Discounting, Risk Aversion and Self-regulation
Murimi, R. M. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-2233-8_32 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Martin, K., Porritt, K. A., & Aromataris, E. (2018) · The JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports · doi:10.11124/jbisrir-2017-003522 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Types of Adolescent Screen Use and Positive Wellbeing: Gender and Parental Education Influences
Chang, G. (2025) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-025-00884-6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“In contrast, some studies find no significant, or weak associations between social media and mental wellbeing (Coyne et al., 2020 ; Leung, 2014 ; Puukko et al., 2020) or are very small (Orben, 2020 ).”
University Students Usage of Facebook: The Case of Obtained Gratifications and Typology of Its Users
Aljasir, S. A., Bajnaid, A., Elyas, T., & Alnawasrah, M. (2017) · Journal of Management and Strategy · doi:10.5430/jms.v8n5p30 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“It has also facilitated communication and resource sharing among individuals, organisations, and communities due to its flexibility and accessibility from different devices (Leung, 2014).”
BackgroundProblematic Linkages in Adolescents
Boursier, V., & Manna, V. (2019) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-8900-6.ch015 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Morueta, R. T., García-Umaña, A., & Andrés, S. M. (2021) · Journal of Intercultural Communication Research · doi:10.1080/17475759.2021.1898449 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…evidence showing both problematic effects (e.g., Chen & Kim, 2013; Levard & Soulas, 2010; O’Keeffe & Clarke-Pearson, 2011) and benefits (e.g., Bian & Leung, 2014; Joo & Sang, 2013; Lee et al., 2011), stimulates the scientific community to study the reasons behind the engagement of young people to…”
BackgroundInfluentialPrasetyo, Y. T., Tejero, P. T., Paras, A. R. P., & Garcia, M. A. P. S. (2021) · doi:10.1145/3460824.3460851 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Web use is a fixed conduct, which in plenty raises the danger of mental conditions [10].”
BackgroundInfluentialHow Do Social Media Impact Interpersonal Communication Competence?
Hollenbaugh, E. E., Ferris, A. L., & Casey, D. J. (2019) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-9412-3.ch006 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Digital Engagement, Social Inequalities and Adolescent Well-BeingPreprint
Bohnert, M., & Gracia, P. (2022) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/ks3tj · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rumination and Social Media Addiction Relationship: The Role of Loneliness and Happiness
Tekin, Ö. E. (2025) · Journal of Social Service Research · doi:10.1080/01488376.2025.2486096 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Thus, increasing social media use becomes uncontrollable and causes addiction (Aktan, 2018; Leung, 2014).”
Kurşuncu, M. A., Griffiths, M. D., BAŞTEMUR, Ş., & Şal, F. (2023) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-023-01221-9 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…confirmed H 3 because previous studies have reported a positive association between internet use/addiction and social media addiction among Turkish samples (e.g., Kircaburun, 2016; Sariçam & Adam Karduz 2018), similar to Far East (e.g., Leung, 2014), and US samples (Longstreet & Brooks, 2017).”
Problematic Linkages in Adolescents
Boursier, V., & Manna, V. (2017) · Advances in human and social aspects of technology book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-3477-8.ch014 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Micro Learning Media for Teaching English at Junior High School Students
Nitiasih, P. K., Santosa, M. H., Suarcaya, P., & Ratnaya, G. (2024) · Journal of Education Technology · doi:10.23887/jet.v7i4.69627 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“This social addiction reduces awareness and increases emotional capacity (Leung, 2014; Sriwilai & Charoensukmongkol, 2016).”
BackgroundChen, C., Xiao, Z., & Leung, D. (2025) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2025.102323 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
[Measuring adolescents' use of social media: A systematic review].
Biscond, M., Revranche, M., & Husky, M. (2021) · L'Encephale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2021.08.016 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Acceptance factors of telemedicine in times of COVID-19: Case Argentina
Schlottke, J. A., Álvarez-Risco, A., Bertiche, E. L., López, R. B., Torletti, C. V., del Hoyo, F. Y., Del-Aguila-Arcentales, S., Mejia, C. R., Rojas-Osorio, M., Davies, N. M., et al. (2024) · Pharmacia · doi:10.3897/pharmacia.71.e113509 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Therefore, people publish many aspects of their lives, even very personal ones, such as being pregnant, having a health problem that has them hospitalized or the most profound thoughts, and often aggressive against political or sports actors (Leung 2014; Li et al. 2015; Theivendran 2021).”
BackgroundHorozoğlu, M. A., & Gündüz, G. (2024) · Akdeniz Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.38021/asbid.1482661 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Analysis of Indonesian Teenagers’ Motives for Using the Internet
Luthfia, A. (2019) · International Conference on Information Management and Technology (ICIMTech) · doi:10.1109/icimtech.2019.8843760 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“For the context of Internet use, Internet motives definition refers to Leung (2014) dan Chin Hooi (2011), motives are aspects that underlie or initiate teenagers' actions to use the Internet [5], [13].”
BackgroundAnalyzing User Behavior and Sentimental in Computer Mediated Communication
Alrumaih, A., Alsabah, R., Aleqabie, H. J., Mjhool, A. Y., Al-Sabbagh, A., & Baldwin, J. S. (2020) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-51859-2_26 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Gratification disorder in a toddler: perils of excess screen time
Rai, R., Elon, N., Inamdar, P., Chowdary, S., & Kaniti, B. S. (2022) · International Journal of Contemporary Pediatrics · doi:10.18203/2349-3291.ijcp20220457 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Dijkstra, A., & Bodamer, W. G. (2023) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12672 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
VegaStar: An Illegal Domain Detection System on Large-Scale Video Traffic
Tian, X., Zhu, Y., Li, Z., Zheng, C., Sun, Y., & Liu, Q. (2018) · IEEE International Conference on Trust, Security and Privacy in Computing and Communications (TrustCom) · doi:10.1109/trustcom/bigdatase.2018.00112 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“For decades, parents and others have been consistently concerned about the potentially harmful influences of exposure to pornographic and violent content, being targeted for harassment, cyber-bullying, sexual solicitation, and Internet addiction [4].”
BackgroundA Systematic Research Review of Internet Addiction and Identity
Luppicini, R., & Alotaibi, S. (2021) · International Journal of Cyber Behavior Psychology and Learning · doi:10.4018/ijcbpl.2021010101 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Goldstein, M. A., & Goldstein, M. C. (2024) · doi:10.1093/med/9780197640739.003.0010 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Risiko Online Pada Remaja dan Pendidikan Literasi Media Baru
Luthfia, A. (2018) · Jurnal Communicate · doi:10.31479/jc.v2i1.70 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Levani, Y., Utama, M. R., & Mochtar, N. M. (2022) · Gaceta Médica de Caracas · doi:10.47307/gmc.2022.130.s2.13 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Özel Gereksinimli Öğrencilerin Sosyal Medya Kullanımlarının İncelenmesi
Kılınç, H. H., & ÖZEY, V. (2023) · Maarif Mektepleri Uluslararası Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.46762/mamulebd.1366479 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Canoğulları, Ö., Yılmaz, Y., & Önder, F. C. (2024) · Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.37217/tebd.1416884 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Theoretical Frameworks and Psychosocial Health Correlates of Equanimity: A Review
Jijina, P., & Biswas, U. N. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-0108-0_17 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Trading on Social Trading Platforms
Tong, X., & Preda, A. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009428118.029 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Liang, J., Xiao, Z., Ka-kuen, D. L., & Leung, L. W. (2025) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051251342225 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“The respondents are social media users aged 17 to 54, who are perceived as the most active users of these platforms (Leung, 2014).”
Self-citationMeasures of Social Media Use Motives During Adolescence
Ketibian, C., Combes, C., & Potard, C. (2026) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000506 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Özcan, M. Ş., Hong, Y.-J., & Choi, K. (2026) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2026.2618675 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Addiction to social media: a review
Basu, S., & V, S. (2017) · International Journal of Recent Scientific Research · doi:10.24327/ijrsr.2017.0804.0133
“However, a growing concern among medical practitioners and researchers is the addiction to social media (Leung, 2014).”
MALAYSIA, U. K., Bukhori, A. B. M., Ja'afar, M. H., & MALAYSIA, U. K. (2022) · International Journal of Public Health Research · doi:10.17576/ijphr.1202.2022.05 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Singh, S., Datta, M., & Batra, S. (2023) · Psychological Studies · doi:10.1007/s12646-023-00731-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“This finding further solidifies internet gaming as an addictive process as multiplayer online roleplaying games can immerse individuals in the fantasy world while role-playing a character (Leung, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialMusakuro, R. N. (2025) · International Journal of Business Ecosystem and Strategy (2687-2293) · doi:10.36096/ijbes.v7i2.698 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Furthermore, research shows social media can lead to addiction, especially for those who spend more time socialising on the internet (Leung, 2014).”
Alsó tagozatosok kortárskapcsolatai az offline és online térben+
Bacsa-Károlyi, B., & Fehérvári, A. (2021) · Educatio · doi:10.1556/2063.30.2021.1.8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Ilyen például a cyberbullying, azaz internetes bántalmazás, zaklatás megjelenése (Kwan–Skoric 2013), a személyes adatok nem megfelelő biztonsága (Mascheroni–Ólafsson 2014) vagy a problémás internethasználat kialakulásának növekvő esélye (Kiss–Pikó 2017; Leung 2014; Zsolnai 2017).”
Privacy Attitudes and Behaviours of Autistic and Non-Autistic Teenagers on Social Networking Sites
Rocheleau, J. N. (2019) · doi:10.22215/etd/2019-13696 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bohnert, M., & Gracia, P. (2020) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/kf4tz · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hariri, A. A. (2019) · International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research
MeshTrust: A CDN-Centric Trust Model for Reputation Management on Video Traffic
Tian, X., Zhu, Y., Zhao, L., Zheng, C., Liu, Q., & Sun, Y. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22741-8_23
“exposure to pornographic and violent content, being targeted for harassment, cyber-bullying, sexual solicitation, and Internet addiction [12].”
BackgroundThe negative online experiences of maltreated children and adolescents
Wright, M. F. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817499-9.00014-4
المخاطر الاجتماعیة والأمنیة لمواقع التواصل الاجتماعی على عینة من الطلاب بجامعة جنوب الوادی بقنا
عبدالحكيم, إ. س. (2021) · بحوث في علم المکتبات والمعلومات · doi:10.21608/sjrc.2021.148019
- Authors
- Leung, L.
- Affiliations
- Chinese University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Corresponding author
- Leung, Louis
- ORCID
- Leung, Louis
- Venue
- Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 424-439
- ISSN
- 2164-2850 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4346000
- OpenAlex
- W1992498885
- Cited by
- 113
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 18.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Keywords
- internet addiction, online risks, adolescents, gratification sought, social media use, online harassment, privacy leakage, Facebook, blogs, instant messaging, risk prediction
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