Reverse engineering the Milky Way
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The ages, metallicities, alpha-elements, and integrals of motion of globular clusters (GCs) accreted by the Milky Way from disrupted satellites remain largely unchanged over time. Here we have used these conserved properties in combination to assign 76 GCs to five progenitor satellite galaxies – one of which we dub the Koala dwarf galaxy. We fit a leaky-box chemical enrichment model to the age–metallicity distribution of GCs, deriving the effective yield and the formation epoch of each satellite. Based on scaling relations of GC counts we estimate the original halo mass, stellar mass, and mean metallicity of each satellite. The total stellar mass of the five accreted satellites contributed around 109 M⊙ in stars to the growth of the Milky Way but over 50 per cent of the Milky Way’s GC system. The five satellites formed at very early times and were likely accreted 8–11 Gyr ago, indicating rapid growth for the Milky Way in its early evolution. We suggest that at least three satellites were originally nucleated, with the remnant nucleus now a GC of the Milky Way. 11 GCs are also identified as having formed ex situ but could not be assigned to a single progenitor satellite.
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Forbes (2020)'s estimates of the stellar masses of the satellite progenitors represent upper limits.
“For these reasons, the resulting estimates of the stellar masses represent (quite uncertain) upper limits, because they e ectively represent projected masses at z = 0 rather than at the time of accretion.”
From Kraken reveals itself – the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations (2020) · cites this paper as Forbes (2020)
Section 6 (p. 6) says Forbes used a near-zero-redshift relation to estimate stellar masses, but explicitly says its evolution is minor for low-mass galaxies and the predicted masses are not particularly sensitive to the merger epoch. The paper instead identifies the inferred metallicities—not the stellar masses—as upper limits at infall (section 6, p. 6; Conclusions, p. 8). (LLM, conf=0.85)
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The kinematic properties of Milky Way stellar halo populations
Lane, J., Bovy, J., & Mackereth, J. T. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab3755 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The contribution of N-rich stars to the Galactic stellar halo using APOGEE red giants
Horta, D., Mackereth, J. T., Schiavon, R. P., Hasselquist, S., Bovy, J., Prieto, C. A., Beers, T. C., Cunha, K., García-Hernández, D. A., Kisku, S. S., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3598 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Pagnini, G., Matteo, P. D., Александрович, Х. С., Mastrobuono-Battisti, A., Haywood, M., Renaud, F., & Combes, F. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245128 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
The stellar mass of the Gaia -Sausage/Enceladus accretion remnant
Lane, J., Bovy, J., & Mackereth, J. T. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2834 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
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Monty, S., Belokurov, V. A., Sanders, J. L., Hansen, T. T., Sakari, C. M., McKenzie, M., Myeong, G., Davies, E. Y., Arentsen, A., & Massari, D. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae1895 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Clearing the Hurdle: The Mass of Globular Cluster Systems as a Function of Host Galaxy Mass
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The chemical composition of globular clusters in the Local Group
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Cluster Ages to Reconstruct the Milky Way Assembly (CARMA)
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A Photometric Survey of Globular Cluster Systems in Brightest Cluster Galaxies
Harris, W. E. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/acab5c · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Mapping the anisotropic Galactic stellar halo with blue horizontal branch stars
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Galactic ArchaeoLogIcaL ExcavatiOns (GALILEO)
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Dwarf galaxy archaeology from chemical abundances and star-formation histories
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A census of new globular clusters in the Galactic bulge
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The stellar halo in Local Group Hestia simulations
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The Nature of the Milky Way’s Stellar Halo Revealed by the Three Integrals of Motion
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An, D., & Beers, T. C. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac07a4 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
A LAMOST BHB Catalog and Kinematics Therein. I. Catalog and Halo Properties
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Carretta, E., & Bragaglia, A. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039392 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Classifying Globular Clusters and Applying them to Estimate the mass of the Milky Way
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The Imprint of Clump Formation at High Redshift. II. The Chemistry of the Bulge
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McKenzie, M., & Bekki, K. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3376 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
CAPOS: The bulge Cluster APOgee Survey
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Milky Way Subsystems from Globular Cluster Kinematics Using Gaia DR2 and HST Data
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oMEGACat. IV. Constraining the Ages of Omega Centauri Subgiant Branch Stars with HST and MUSE
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Moreno, E., Fernández-Trincado, J. G., Pérez-Villegas, Á., Chaves-Velasquez, L., & Schuster, W. J. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab3724 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Garro, E. R., Minniti, D., Gómez, M., & Alonso-García, J. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141067 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
ω Centauri: a MUSE discovery of a counter-rotating core
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Woody, T., & Schlaufman, K. C. (2021) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abff5f · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Kuzma, P. B., Ferguson, A. M. N., & Peñarrubia, J. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab2280 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
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Tutukov, A. V., Сизова, М. Д., & Vereshchagin, S. V. (2020) · Astronomy Reports · doi:10.1134/s106377292010008x · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Signatures of tidal disruption in the Milky Way globular cluster NGC 6981 (M72)
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Horta, D., Petersen, M. S., & Peñarrubia, J. (2025) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staf348 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
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Tautvaišienė, G., Drazdauskas, A., Bragaglia, A., Martell, S. L., Pancino, E., Lardo, C., Mikolaitis, Š., Minkevičiūtė, R., Stonkutė, E., Ambrosch, M., et al. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142234 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
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The formation of globular clusters
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The Rapid Formation of the Metal-poor Milky Way
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The Hubble Missing Globular Cluster Survey
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Cluster Ages to Reconstruct the Milky Way Assembly (CARMA)
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Hubble Space Telescope imaging of the extremely metal-poor globular cluster EXT8 in Messier 31
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Valenzuela, L. M., Forbes, D. A., & Remus, R. (2025) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staf015 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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The escape of globular clusters from the satellite dwarf galaxies of the Milky Way
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High-resolution Chemical Abundances of the Nyx Stream
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Do ultra-diffuse galaxies follow the globular cluster–halo mass relation?
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Self-citationSpace astrometry with Gaia: Advances in understanding our Galaxy
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Abundances of iron-peak elements in 58 bulge spheroid stars from APOGEE
Barbuy, B., Friaça, A. C. S., Ernandes, H., da Silva, P., Souza, S. O., Fernández-Trincado, J. G., Cunha, K., Smith, V. V., Masseron, T., Pérez-Villegas, Á., et al. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452235 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Exploration of Halo Substructures in Integrals-of-motion Space with Gaia Data Release 3
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The surroundings of the Milky Way globular cluster NGC 6809
Piatti, A. E. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1532 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
- Authors
- Forbes, D. A.
- Affiliations
- Swinburne University of Technology (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Forbes, Duncan A
- ORCID
- Forbes, Duncan A
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2020-01-29
- Volume
- 493
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 847-854
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W3004510381
- Cited by
- 168
- References
- 64
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 20
- FWCI
- 10.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Licence
- academic.oup.com/journals/pages/open_access/funder_policies/chorus/standard_publication_model (vor)
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Swinburne figshare (Swinburne University of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- ARC (DP160101608)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Keywords
- globular clusters, Milky Way accretion history, age-metallicity relation, first integrals, alpha elements
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Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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