The merger that led to the formation of the Milky Way’s inner stellar halo and thick disk
Open accessAbstract
The assembly of our Galaxy can be reconstructed using the motions and chemistry of individual stars 1,2. Chemo-dynamical studies of the stellar halo near the Sun have indicated the presence of multiple components 3, such as streams 4 and clumps 5, as well as correlations between the stars' chemical abundances and orbital parameters 6-8. Recently, analyses of two large stellar surveys 9,10 revealed the presence of a well populated elemental abundance sequence 7,11, two distinct sequences in the colour-magnitude diagram 12 and a prominent, slightly retrograde kinematic structure 13,14 in the halo near the Sun, which may trace an important accretion event experienced by the Galaxy 15. However, the link between these observations and their implications for Galactic history is not well understood. Here we report an analysis of the kinematics, chemistry, age and spatial distribution of stars that are mainly linked to two major Galactic components: the thick disk and the stellar halo. We demonstrate that the inner halo is dominated by debris from an object that at infall was slightly more massive than the Small Magellanic Cloud, and which we refer to as Gaia-Enceladus. The stars that originate in Gaia-Enceladus cover nearly the full sky, and their motions reveal the presence of streams and slightly retrograde and elongated trajectories. With an estimated mass ratio of four to one, the merger of the Milky Way with Gaia-Enceladus must have led to the dynamical heating of the precursor of the Galactic thick disk, thus contributing to the formation of this component approximately ten billion years ago. These findings are in line with the results of galaxy formation simulations, which predict that the inner stellar halo should be dominated by debris from only a few massive progenitors 2,16.
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In part, the discrepancy arises because Helmi et al. (2018) assume Gaia-Enceladus was similar in stellar mass to the Large Magellanic Cloud, which we find is an overestimation.
“In part, the discrepancy arises because Helmi et al. (2018) assume that Gaia -Enceladus was similar in stellar mass to the Large Magellanic Cloud, which we find is an overestimation.”
From Kraken reveals itself – the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations (2020) · cites this paper as Helmi et al. (2018)
The main text (p. 3) estimates Gaia-Enceladus’s stellar mass at about 6 × 10^8 solar masses, comparable to the present-day Small Magellanic Cloud—not the Large Magellanic Cloud. Its comparison with the Large Magellanic Cloud concerns chemical abundances and the Cloud’s early years, not similar stellar mass. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe next most massive satellite brought in a large number of GCs, many of which were formerly associated with the Canis Major 'mirage', and was dubbed Gaia-Enceladus.
“The next most massive satellite brought in a large number of GCs, many of which were formerly associated with the Canis Major 'mirage'”
From Kraken reveals itself – the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations (2020) · cites this paper as Helmi et al. 2018
The main text (p. 4) says thirteen globular clusters can be associated with Gaia-Enceladus, and the Methods (p. 10) explain the name and describe the galaxy as a giant relative to other satellites. Our copy does not identify it as the next most massive satellite or link those clusters to the Canis Major ‘mirage’. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredGaia-Enceladus was accreted 10 Gyr ago according to Helmi et al. (2018).
“Helmi et al. (2018) estimate that Gaia -Enceladus was accreted 10 Gyr ago”
From Kraken reveals itself – the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations (2020) · cites this paper as Helmi et al. (2018)
The paper finds a lower stellar mass for Gaia-Enceladus than the rough estimate of M? ~ 6 × 10^8 M by Helmi et al. (2018).
“Relative to other measurements in the literature, we find a lower mass for Gaia -Enceladus than Helmi et al. (2018), who provide a very rough estimate of M ? 6 10 8 M from the star formation rate ( 0 : 3 M yr 1 ) and duration ( 2 Gyr) necessary to reproduce the -poor stellar population (Fern´ andez-Alvar et al. 2018).”
From Kraken reveals itself – the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations (2020) · cites this paper as Helmi et al. (2018)
Our predicted accretion redshifts largely satisfy the constraints obtained through independent methods.
“Relative to other measurements in the literature, our predicted accretion redshifts largely satisfy the constraints obtained through independent methods.”
From Kraken reveals itself – the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations (2020) · cites this paper as Helmi et al. (2018)
Helmi et al. (2018) estimate the mass ratio of the Gaia-Enceladus accretion event was r_M* ~1:17, about a factor of 4 higher than predicted by our analysis.
“Helmi et al. (2018) estimate that the mass ratio of the Gaia -Enceladus accretion event was rM ? 1:17, which is about a factor of 4 higher than predicted by our analysis.”
From Kraken reveals itself – the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations (2020) · cites this paper as Helmi et al. (2018)
We predict the mass of Gaia-Enceladus itself is about a factor of 2.2 lower than quoted by Helmi et al. (2018).
“First, we predict a mass of Gaia -Enceladus itself that is about a factor of 2.2 lower than quoted by Helmi et al. (2018).”
From Kraken reveals itself – the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations (2020) · cites this paper as Helmi et al. (2018)
We consider our merger mass ratio to be in rough agreement with Helmi et al. (2018), but expect it to be more accurate because it is based on self-consistent orbital and chemical evolution of satellite galaxies in hydrodynamical cosmological simulations.
“Given the approximate nature of the numbers quoted by Helmi et al. (2018), we consider our merger mass ratio to be in rough agreement, but also expect it to be more accurate, because it is based on the self-consistent orbital and chemical evolution of satellite galaxies in hydrodynamical cosmological simulations.”
From Kraken reveals itself – the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations (2020) · cites this paper as Helmi et al. (2018)
The halo mass ratio obtained for Gaia-Enceladus (r_Mh = 1:11 +4 -3) is considerably smaller than estimated by Helmi et al. (2018), who find r_Mh ~1:4.
“The halo mass ratio obtained for Gaia -Enceladus ( rM h = 1:11 + 4 3 ) is considerably smaller than that estimated by Helmi et al. (2018), who find rM h 1:4.”
From Kraken reveals itself – the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations (2020) · cites this paper as Helmi et al. (2018)
We predict the mass of the Milky Way at the time of accretion was about a factor of 1.8 higher than the mass adopted by Helmi et al. (2018).
“Secondly, we predict that the mass of the Milky Way at the time of accretion was about a factor of 1.8 higher than the mass adopted by Helmi et al. (2018).”
From Kraken reveals itself – the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations (2020) · cites this paper as Helmi et al. (2018)
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Evidence for two early accretion events that built the Milky Way stellar halo
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“Various combinations of GC energies and angular momenta (i.e. orbits and integrals of motion, Myeong et al. 2018; Helmi et al. 2018), as well as GC c© 2020 The Authors ar X iv :2 00 3.”
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BackgroundResultInfluentialTracing the formation of the Milky Way through ultra metal-poor stars
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Detection of the Keplerian decline in the Milky Way rotation curve
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Detection of the LMC-induced sloshing of the Galactic halo
Erkal, D., Deason, A. J., Belokurov, V., Xue, X.-X., Koposov, S. E., Bird, S. A., Liu, C., Simion, I. T., Yang, C., Zhang, L., et al. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1828 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Spectrophotometric Parallaxes with Linear Models: Accurate Distances for Luminous Red-giant Stars
Hogg, D. W., Eilers, A.-C., & Rix, H.-W. (2019) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab398c · Cited by 48 · see citing works
- Authors
- Helmi, A., Babusiaux, C., Koppelman, H. H., Massari, D., Veljanoski, J., & Brown, A. G. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Groningen (NL)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Leiden University (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Helmi, Amina
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2018-10-31
- Volume
- 563
- Issue
- 7729
- Pages
- 85-88
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2898319922
- Cited by
- 1,235
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 112 · 2025: 166 · 2024: 157 · 2023: 160 · 2022: 164 · 2021: 192 · 2020: 153 · 2019: 124 · 2018: 7
- FWCI
- 63.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- European Space Agency
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Keywords
- Gaia-Enceladus, Milky Way formation, stellar halo, thick disk, galaxy mergers, stellar streams, chemical abundances, dynamical heating, Small Magellanic Cloud, accretion history
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