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Cited by 1,656Stellar, planetary, and galactic studiesGalaxies: Formation, Evolution, PhenomenaAstrophysical Phenomena and Observations

The Galaxy in Context: Structural, Kinematic, and Integrated Properties

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Bland-Hawthorn, Joss, Gerhard, Ortwin·2016·Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
DOI 10.1146/annurev-astro-081915-023441
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Abstract

Our Galaxy, the Milky Way, is a benchmark for understanding disk galaxies. It is the only galaxy whose formation history can be studied using the full distribution of stars from faint dwarfs to supergiants. The oldest components provide us with unique insight into how galaxies form and evolve over billions of years. The Galaxy is a luminous (L⋆) barred spiral with a central box/peanut bulge, a dominant disk, and a diffuse stellar halo. Based on global properties, it falls in the sparsely populated “green valley” region of the galaxy color-magnitude diagram. Here we review the key integrated, structural and kinematic parameters of the Galaxy, and point to uncertainties as well as directions for future progress. Galactic studies will continue to play a fundamental role far into the future because there are measurements that can only be made in the near field and much of contemporary astrophysics depends on such observations.

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Crossref · 10.1146/annurev-astro-081915-023441

Cites

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  • Before Gaia, the Milky Way virial mass was known only to within a factor of several-(0.53) × 10^12 M⊙.

    “Before Gaia , these challenges meant that the MW virial mass was known only to within a factor of several-(0 . 53) × 10 12 M ⊙ (Bland-Hawthorn & Gerhard, 2016)-despite decades of effort.”

    From The rotation curve of the Milky Way: State of the art, the Keplerian decline debate, and implications for dark matter (2026) · cites this paper as Bland-Hawthorn & Gerhard, 2016

    The “M vir” section (p. 52) gives a Galactic virial-mass estimate of 1.3 ± 0.3 × 10^12 M⊙ and says it cannot be much below 10^12 M⊙. The discussion of the timing-mass constraint (p. 51) gives an upper limit of about 1.6 × 10^12 M⊙. The paper acknowledges measurement challenges, but these stated bounds run contrary to a 0.5–3 × 10^12 M⊙ range or uncertainty by a factor of several. (LLM, conf=0.84)

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  • Currently, the stellar disc mass of the Galaxy is poorly constrained and thus cannot be used to distinguish between the two models, although most measurements agree better with the lower stellar mass of the contracted NFW halo model.

    “Currently, the stellar disc mass of our galaxy is poorly constrained (e.g. see the compilation of stellar profiles in Iocco et al. 2015) and thus cannot be used to distinguish between the two models, although most measurements agree better with the lower stellar mass of the contracted NFW halo model”

    From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as Bland-Hawthorn & Gerhard 2016

    Section 5.4 (p. 41) describes the disk scalelength as an important unknown when separating disk and dark-halo contributions, supporting uncertainty in the disk’s mass distribution. Figure 17 (p. 55) gives stellar-mass estimates, but the paper does not say that the disk mass cannot distinguish the two models or that most measurements favor the lower stellar mass of a contracted NFW halo. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The total baryonic mass of the MW is M_bary ≈ (0.6-1.0) × 10^11 M⊙ (Bland-Hawthorn & Gerhard, 2016).

    “The total baryonic mass of the MW is M bary ≈ (0 . 6-1 . 0) × 10 11 M ⊙ (Bland-Hawthorn & Gerhard, 2016).”

    From The rotation curve of the Milky Way: State of the art, the Keplerian decline debate, and implications for dark matter (2026) · cites this paper as Bland-Hawthorn & Gerhard, 2016

    Section 6.2 (p. 50) gives the Milky Way’s total baryonic mass, including the hot corona, as 8.8 ± 1.2 × 10^10 M⊙. That supports the upper part of the cited range, but its lower endpoint of 0.6 × 10^11 M⊙ is closer to the paper’s 6.3 ± 0.5 × 10^10 M⊙ estimate for stars and cold gas alone, not its total-baryonic estimate. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The Milky Way is a fairly typical disk galaxy.

    “The Milky Way is, in general terms, a fairly typical disk galaxy (Bland-Hawthorn & Gerhard 2016).”

    From Streams, Substructures, and the Early History of the Milky Way (2020) · cites this paper as Bland-Hawthorn & Gerhard 2016

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Cites

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Research works printed but not linked: 1

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Authors
Bland-Hawthorn, J., & Gerhard, O.
Affiliations
  • 1Sydney Institute for Astronomy, School of Physics, University of Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia; email: jbh@physics.usyd.edu.au
  • Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (DE)
Corresponding author
Gerhard, Ortwin
ORCID
Gerhard, Ortwin
Venue
Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
Publisher
Annual Reviews
Published
2016-09-19
Volume
54
Issue
1
Pages
529-596
ISSN
  • 0066-4146 (ISSN-L)
  • 1545-4282
DOI
10.1146/annurev-astro-081915-023441
OpenAlex
W2216753448
Cited by
1,656
References
577
Citations by year
2026: 119 · 2025: 187 · 2024: 181 · 2023: 168 · 2022: 140 · 2021: 162 · 2020: 203 · 2019: 194 · 2018: 160 · 2017: 109 · 2016: 31
FWCI
11.89
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics (publishedVersion)
  • arXiv (Cornell University) (publishedVersion)
  • Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
  • MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
  • arXiv (Cornell University)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
  • Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
  • Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
Keywords
Milky Way, disk galaxies, galaxy structure, galactic kinematics, stellar halo, barred spiral galaxies, green valley, galaxy formation and evolution, stellar populations

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