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Gender Differences in Depression
Open accessAbstract
From early adolescence through adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to experience depression. Many different explanations for this gender difference in depression have been offered, but none seems to fully explain it. Recent research has focused on gender differences in stress responses, and in exposure to certain stressors. I review this research and describe how gender differences in stress experiences and stress reactivity may interact to create women's greater vulnerability to depression.
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Women’s Mental Health: A Critique of Hetero-Patriarchal Power and Pathologization
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“Indeed, in their studies, Nolen-Hoeksema and Hilt [47] explain that other factors could account for this gender difference, including biological influences such as genetics, hormones, adrenal functioning and neurotransmitter systems, in addition to psychosocial variables such as more frequent victimization and trauma…”
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Antenatal anxiety and depression: Frequency and correlates during the COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan
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“[ 1] Many studies report that women are at least twice as likely as men to experience depression and anxiety.[2,3] Pregnancy, being emotionally and physically exhausting, makes mothers more susceptible to developing mental disorders which is especially prevalent in second and third trimesters.”
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Cumulative and Relative Disadvantage as Long‐Term Determinants of Negative Self‐feelings*
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Exploring the cognitive load of negative thinking: A novel dual-task experiment
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“This surprising finding is counterintuitive to conventional mental health knowledge (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), but consistent with past”
ResultThe gendered interplay between success and well-being during transitions
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“For example, Nolen-Hoeksema (2001) points out that life events might affect females more as they tend towards (emotional) rumination.”
BackgroundInfluentialEffect of gender and diabetes on major depressive disorder using heart rate asymmetry
Karmakar, C. K., Jelinek, H. F., Warner, P., Khandoker, A. H., & Palaniswami, M. S. (2014) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2014.6945160 · Cited by 7
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“internalizing characteristics among female substance users (2,16–18), for whom internalizing characteristics are more prevalent (19,20).”
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DeRose, L. M., & Jeanne Brooks-gunn, B. (2008) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511551963.004 · Cited by 8
An examination of the conflict resolution strategies and goals of children with depressive symptoms
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Gender specific associations between potentially traumatic life events and mental health
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BackgroundMethodInfluentialAnxiety, Depression and Fraternal Experiences on the Birth Child in a Foster Home
Mainpin, A. M., Minary, J.-P., & Boutanquoi, M. (2016) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-016-0437-5 · Cited by 6
“…anxiety and depression scores among girls than boys, which is consistent with the results of many studies (Aubé, Fichman, Saltaris, & Koestner, 2000; Gore, Aseltine, & Cohen, 1993; Mezulis, Funasaki, Charbonneau, & Shibley Hyde, 2010; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Schraedley, Gotlib, & Hayward, 1999).”
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Unmasking depression: Challenging structural oppression whilst recognising individual agency
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“Within this dominant social logic, it is ‘known’ that women are more likely to be diagnosed with a depressive disorder than men (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
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“The risk and lifetime prevalence of a major depressive disorder are twice among females compared with those of males (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
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Gender Differences in Biological Function in Young Adulthood: An Intragenerational Perspective
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An Exploration of Men's Attitudes Regarding Depression and Help-Seeking
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THE STATE OF NURSING SCIENCE—CULTURAL AND LIFESPAN ISSUES IN DEPRESSION: PART I: FOCUS ON ADULTS
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The Origins of a Spontaneous Thought: EEG Correlates and Thinkers’ Source Attributions
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“Specifically, males exhibit less vulnerability to depression compared to females (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Snyder, 2013).”
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“Females were also significantly associated with higher depression risk (AOR = 1.098), corroborating extensive literature suggesting that biological, hormonal and social determinants disproportionately affect women’s mental health in later life 80,81 .”
InfluentialAnxiety and Depression in Hemodialysis: Sex Differences
Polikandrioti, M., Kalafatakis, F., Tsoulou, V., & Gerogianni, G. (2021) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-78771-4_28 · Cited by 6
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“Time and again, women are reported to be about twice as likely as men to develop depression (for reviews see: Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Girgus and Yang, 2015).”
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Гафаров, В. В., Panov, D. O., Громова, Е. А., Абаевич, К. Э., Gagulin, I. V., & Гафарова, А. В. (2021) · International Journal Of Medical Science And Clinical Invention · doi:10.18535/ijmsci/v8i03.06 · Cited by 5
“Although men are less likely to suffer from depression than women this affective state is still one of the most common mental disorders in men (12%) [17].”
BackgroundSELF-ESTEEM AND DEPRESSION AMONG VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Ho, T. T. Q., & Hoang, T. H. (2021) · UED Journal of Social Sciences Humanities and Education · doi:10.47393/jshe.v11i1.927 · Cited by 6
“According to Nolen-Hoeksema (2001), in many countries, ethnicities, and cultures, women are nearly twice as likely to suffer from depression than men.”
Psychometric Properties of the CES-D, PCL-5, and DERS in a Honduran Adult Sample
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“There is also ample literature suggesting that beginning in adolescence, women report significantly more internalizing problems than do men, including greater vulnerability to depression and posttraumatic stress (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Olff et al., 2007).”
Gender Differences in Suppression Based on Type of Emotion
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Ding, H., Zhao, C., Huang, F., & Lei, L. (2025) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605251322811 · Cited by 5
“Previous research has consistently found that females are more vulnerable to depression and more likely to engage in internalizing problem behaviors such as self-harm as a response to depressive symptoms (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Zhang et al., 2023).”
Gender differences in depressive symptoms in Thai adolescents
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BackgroundA study of a couple with type 2 diabetes: dyadic adjustment and psychological morbidity
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The emotional needs audit (ENA): a report on its reliability and validity
Tsaroucha, A., Kingston, P., Nadia Corp, Stewart, A., & Walton, I. (2012) · Mental Health Review Journal · doi:10.1108/13619321211270407 · Cited by 5
Taylor, M. (2015) · International Journal of Disability Development and Education · doi:10.1080/1034912x.2014.984593 · Cited by 5
“There are data revealing that more girls present with symptoms of depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), but data also reveal that many boys present differently to girls; for example, boys are more likely to “act out” or become aggressive in different ways in the playground when they are depressed…”
BackgroundConsidering the Role of Social Determinants of Health in Black–White Breast Cancer Disparities
Hudson, D., & Gehlert, S. J. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0863-9_15 · Cited by 5
Wyman‐Chick, K. A. (2012) · Clinical Case Studies · doi:10.1177/1534650112436679 · Cited by 5
“Women are twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with depression in late adulthood (Garber & Flynn, 2001, as cited in Fisher, Cucciare, DroBel, & Yury, 2006; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
BackgroundPolish adaptation of the Gotland Scale of Male Depression (GDMS) by Wolfgang Rutz
Chodkiewicz, J. (2017) · Postępy Psychiatrii i Neurologii · doi:10.5114/ppn.2017.68291 · Cited by 5
Oh, Y. H., Moon, J. H., Kong, M. H., Oh, B., & Kim, H. J. (2017) · Daehan imsang geon-gang jeungjin hakoeji/Daehan imsang geon'gang jeungjin haghoeji · doi:10.15384/kjhp.2017.17.4.209 · Cited by 5
Sendi, I., Chouikh, A., Ammar, A., & Bouafia, N. A. (2018) · International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health · doi:10.1515/ijamh-2018-0068 · Cited by 5
Bridges‐Curry, Z., Glenn, L. E., & Felton, J. W. (2019) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2019.1654483 · Cited by 5
“Female students may be at particularly high risk, with researchers indicating that women are twice as likely as men to experience depression and numerous anxiety disorders.(3,4) Given that internalizing disorders are associated with considerable impairment, including increased risk of physical illness, substance use,…”
BackgroundWorry and Rumination: Measurement Invariance Across Gender
Carter, J. A. (2021) · Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University) · doi:10.26076/91e0-6588 · Cited by 5
Poor Peer Support as a Predictive Factor towards Depression among Adolescent
Ahmad, N., Hafizah, Z., Zubaidah, S., & Nawi, A. M. (2015) · Cited by 5
Brito, J. (2015) · The European Proceedings of Social & Behavioural Sciences · doi:10.15405/epsbs.2015.08.8 · Cited by 6
Psychology of Return to Play After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury
Doorley, J. D., & Womble, M. N. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-54839-7.00011-7 · Cited by 5
Self-Perceptions of Attractiveness and Offending During Adolescence
Mowen, T. J., Boman, J. H., Kopf, S., & Booth, M. Z. (2021) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128720987196 · Cited by 5
“…scholarly perceptions of gender differences in depression tend to highlight that adolescent girls are more likely than adolescent boys to exhibit depressive symptoms (see an overview by Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), recent research has argued that girls may not experience depression more than boys.”
BackgroundDietary intake, dietary habits, and depression in Korean women with polycystic ovary syndrome
Kim, S. H., Kim, H., Park, S., Hwang, J. Y., Chung, H. W., & Chang, N. (2012) · Journal of Nutrition and Health · doi:10.4163/kjn.2012.45.3.229 · Cited by 5
Metadata
- Authors
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
- Affiliations
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2001-10
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 173-176
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- OpenAlex
- W2114965225
- Cited by
- 1,474
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 59 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 88 · 2019: 69 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 102 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 102 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 73
- FWCI
- 19.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- gender differences, depression, women, stress response, stress reactivity, stressors, depression vulnerability, adolescence, adulthood
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