Gender differences in depression: Critical review
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Background: With few exceptions, the prevalence, incidence and morbidity risk of depressive disorders are higher in females than in males, beginning at mid-puberty and persisting through adult life. Aims: To review putative risk factors leading to gender differences in depressive disorders. Method: A critical review of the literature, dealing separately with artefactual and genuine determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders. Results: Although artefactual determinants may enhance a female preponderance to some extent, gender differences in depressive disorders are genuine. At present, adverse experiences in childhood, depression and anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence, sociocultural roles with related adverse experiences, and psychological attributes related to vulnerability to life events and coping skills are likely to be involved. Genetic and biological factors and poor social support, however, have few or no effects in the emergence of gender differences. Conclusions: Determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders are far from being established and their combination into integrated aetiological models continues to be lacking.
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Depression occurs with higher prevalence in women.
“and since depression already occurs with higher prevalence in women [7]”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [7]
These prevalence estimates are considerably higher than those observed in the general population and are similar to, or higher than, those observed in patients with diabetes, Parkinson's disease and cancer.
“These prevalence estimates are considerably higher than those observed in the general population [1] and are similar to, or higher than, those observed in patients with diabetes [24], Parkinson’s disease [25] and cancer [26].”
From The prevalence of depression in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2013) · cites this paper as [25]
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Artazcoz, L., Benach, J., Borrell, C., & Cortès, I. (2004) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.94.1.82 · Cited by 609 · see citing works
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“…a high prevalence of homosexual ideation in male schizophrenics (Planansky & Johnston 1962), the female-biased sex ratio in major depression (e.g., Piccinelli & Wilkinson 2000), and the relatively high incidences of psychosis in Klinefelter syndrome (Boks et al. 2007a; DeLisi et al. 2005; van…”
Mikocka-Walus, A., Knowles, S. R., Keefer, L., & Graff, L. (2016) · Inflammatory Bowel Diseases · doi:10.1097/mib.0000000000000620 · Cited by 567 · see citing works
The stress system in depression and neurodegeneration: Focus on the human hypothalamus
Bao, A., Meynen, G., & Swaab, D. F. (2007) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.04.005 · Cited by 547 · see citing works
“Unipolar depression and dysthymia are twice as common in women as they are in men (Seeman, 1997; Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000).”
Seeing everyone else’s highlight reels: how Facebook usage is linked to depressive symptoms.
Steers, M.-L. N., Wickham, R. E., & Acitelli, L. K. (2014) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2014.33.8.701 · Cited by 535 · see citing works
“…in social comparison (e.g., Goethals et al., 1991; Martinot et al., 2002) and women are more than twice as likely to be depressed as men (i.e., Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000), we examined gender as a potential moderator of the relationship between Facebook social comparisons and depressive…”
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“On average, female adolescents are more likely than males to react to stressors with depressive symptoms (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000), which could lead to stronger effects of chronic illness on depressive symptoms.”
Uher, R., & McGuffin, P. (2007) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4002067 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
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“It is well recognized that women are more likely to suffer from depression than men throughout life (Kessler et al., 1994; Steiner et al., 2003; Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000).”
The influence of age, gender, and race on the prevalence of depression in heart failure patients
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“…as neuroticism and attributional styles characterized by globality, stability and internality are involved in the vulnerability to depression, there is insufficient support for the notion that they contribute to the increased risk to females by a direct mechanism (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000).”
Pathophysiological mechanisms implicated in postpartum depression
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“Gender Epidemiological studies have shown that major depression is more common in females than in males (for review see Piccinelli and Wilkinso”
Engendering health: A social constructionist examination of men's health beliefs and behaviors.
Courtenay, W. H. (2000) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/1524-9220.1.1.4 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
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“These results confirm previous findings suggesting that women report higher levels of depression than man (e.g., Kessler et al. 1993; Piccinelli and Wilkinson 2000; Weissman and Klerman 1977; Weissman et al. 1984).”
Chronic mild stress impact: Are females more vulnerable?
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HIV and Depression – a systematic review of interventions
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“In the general literature, there are strong gender effects whereby women have higher prevalence, incidence and morbidity risk from depression than men (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000).”
Obstructive sleep apnea and depression
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Religion, Health, and Psychological Well-Being
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“Women tend to report lower levels of well-being than men ( Piccinelli & Wilkinson 2000 ), although religious participation tends to attenuate the sex difference.”
A Starring Role for Microglia in Brain Sex Differences
Lenz, K. M., & McCarthy, M. M. (2015) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858414536468 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
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“These are controversial findings, according to Piccinelli and Wilkinson (2000) whose findings allege that poor social support has little or no effect on the risk of depression between genders.”
Influence of Gender on Mental Health Literacy in Young Australians
Cotton, S., Wright, A., Harris, M., Jorm, A. F., & McGorry, P. D. (2006) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/j.1440-1614.2006.01885.x · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Gender, mental health and ageing
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Gender differences in and risk factors for depression in adolescence: A 4-year longitudinal study
Galambos, N. L., Leadbeater, B. J. R., & Barker, E. T. (2003) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/01650250344000235 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
“These symptoms may interfere with adolescents’ abilities to engage effectively in stagesalient tasks, thereby potentially leading to negative lifelong consequences for physical and psychological health and wellbeing.”
Harrison, P. J., & Tunbridge, E. M. (2007) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301543 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
“…and Cairns, 2003; De Vries, 2004), and most psychiatric disorders show sex differences in one or more variables including incidence, age at onset, clinical features, and outcome (eg Lensi et al, 1996; Tamminga, 1997; Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000; Aleman et al, 2003; Baron-Cohen et al, 2005).”
Boyd, A., Van de Velde, S., Vilagut, G., de Graaf, R., O׳Neill, S., Florescu, S., Alonso, J., & Kovess-Masfety, V. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.11.002 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Sex Differences in the Pathways to Major Depression: A Study of Opposite-Sex Twin Pairs
Kendler, K. S., & Gardner, C. O. (2014) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13101375 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Comorbidity of PTSD in anxiety and depressive disorders: Prevalence and shared risk factors
Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B. W., van Hemert, A. M., de Rooij, M., & Elzinga, B. M. (2014) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.01.017 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2012) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_25 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Fried, E. I., Nesse, R. M., Zivin, K., Guille, C., & Sen, S. (2013) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291713002900 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
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Gender and socio-economic patterning of self-reported sleep problems in Britain
Arber, S., Bote, M., & Meadows, R. (2009) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.10.016 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
“Women have higher levels of depression and anxiety, and research shows that individuals suffering from psychiatric disorders, such as depression and anxiety, have poorer quality sleep (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000; Ustun, 2000).”
Males and females differ in brain activation during cognitive tasks
Bell, E. C., Willson, M. C., Wilman, A. H., Dave, S., & Silverstone, P. H. (2005) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.09.049 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
“, 2001 ; Piccinelli and Wilkinson , 2000 ; Brady and Randall , 1999 ; Pigot , 1999 ; Weinstock , 1999 ; Gold , 1998 ) .”
Stress Neurobiology and Developmental Psychopathology
Gunnar, M. R., & Vázquez, D. M. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470939390.ch13 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Insomnia Symptoms in Older Adults: Associated Factors and Gender Differences
Jaussent, I., Dauvilliers, Y., Ancelin, M.-L., Dartigues, J.-F., Tavernier, B., Touchon, J., Ritchie, K., & Besset, A. (2011) · The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/jgp.0b013e3181e049b6 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Dokras, A., Stener-Victorin, E., Yildiz, B. O., Li, R., Ottey, S., Shah, D., Epperson, N., & Teede, H. (2018) · Fertility and Sterility · doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2018.01.038 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
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Gender differences in depression: the role of personality factors
Goodwin, R. D., & Gotlib, I. H. (2004) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2003.12.024 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
“In sum, these data provide initial evidence of reliable gender differences in personality characteristics between male and female adults in the United States population (Lewinsohn et al., 1998; Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000).”
Montagne, B., Kessels, R. P. C., Frigerio, E., de Haan, E. H. F., & Perrett, D. I. (2005) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-005-0050-6 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
“Although several possible reasons have been suggested, there is no consensus yet (Piccinelli and Wilkinson 2000; Kessler et al. 1994).”
Gatt, J. M., Burton, K., Williams, L. M., & Schofield, P. R. (2014) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.09.014 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Gender difference in the change of adolescents’ mental health and subjective wellbeing trajectories
Yoon, Y., Eisenstadt, M., Lereya, S. T., & Deighton, J. (2022) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-022-01961-4 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
“This is consistent with literature, suggesting that girls are more likely to display depressive symptoms across most of the life span, beginning at some point in adolescence [38].”
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Rethinking Gender Differences in Health: Why We Need to Integrate Social and Biological Perspectives
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Gender differences in insomnia—a study in the Hong Kong Chinese population
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“These could vary from artefactual reasons such as measurement and recall bias to biological, psychological and social factors [2].”
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Social and economic correlates of depressive symptoms and perceived stress in South African adults
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Widowhood and Depression: New Light on Gender Differences, Selection, and Psychological Adjustment
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“Controlling for baseline depressive symptoms is especially important when assessing gender differences, as women tend to have higher rates of depression compared with men throughout the life course (Mirowsky, 1996; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000).”
The effect of acculturation and social support on change in mental health among young immigrants
Oppedal, B., Røysamb, E., & Sam, D. L. (2004) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/01650250444000126 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
“…when adolescents are concerned, considering the developmental changes in mental health in general and in depression in particular that are taking place during this stage (Angold, Costello, & Worthman, 1998; Kessler et al., 1994; Lewinsohn, Rohde, & Seeley, 1998; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000).”
- Authors
- Piccinelli, M., & Wilkinson, G.
- Affiliations
- Ospedale di Circolo e Fondazione Macchi (IT)
- Royal Liverpool University Hospital (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Piccinelli, Marco
- Venue
- British Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Royal College of Psychiatrists
- Published
- 2000-12
- Volume
- 177
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 486-492
- ISSN
- 0007-1250 (ISSN-L)
- 1472-1465
- OpenAlex
- W2055218553
- Cited by
- 2,376
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 62 · 2025: 94 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 72 · 2022: 90 · 2021: 118 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 138 · 2018: 142 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 134 · 2015: 159 · 2014: 134 · 2013: 114 · 2012: 112
- FWCI
- 4.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The British Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- gender differences, depressive disorders, women, risk factors, childhood adversity, childhood anxiety disorders, coping strategies, life events, genetic factors, social support, etiology
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Depressive Disorder, Family, Female, Humans, Male, Norepinephrine, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, Risk Factors, Serotonin, Sex Factors, Social Support, Stress, Psychological, Prevalence, Disease Progression
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