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Gender Differences in Depression
Open accessAbstract
From early adolescence through adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to experience depression. Many different explanations for this gender difference in depression have been offered, but none seems to fully explain it. Recent research has focused on gender differences in stress responses, and in exposure to certain stressors. I review this research and describe how gender differences in stress experiences and stress reactivity may interact to create women's greater vulnerability to depression.
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“Psychological distress in childhood and adolescence, adverse life events, coping skills, psychological resilience, and protective factors may also affect the prevalence and correlates of such disorders (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000).”
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“A fifth goal of the study is to explore gender differences in early parenting and its predictors and correlates, given the extensive body of research on gender differences in stress and depression (e.g., Hammen, 2005; Nolen-Hoeksema & Hilt, 2009).”
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“At the micro level, we have to take into account that women report a higher prevalence of depression (Bracke 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema 2001; Van de Velde et al. 2010).”
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“This interpretation provides further support to the evidence that negative affective biases are linked to the habitual use of suppression (Gross & John, 2003), which may be related to enhanced susceptibility to depression in women (Kessler, 2003; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMental health among older married couples: the role of gender and family life
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“…factor for depression (Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010; Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010; Compas et al., 2008) and it is also an explanation factor to gender differences in depression, with women showing greater risk for depression than men (Hilt & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2009; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
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Sandfort, T. G. M., Bakker, F., Schellevis, F., & Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2007) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9233-9 · Cited by 65
Heath, N. L., Carsley, D., Riggi, M. E. D., Mills, D. J., & Mettler, J. (2016) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2016.1162243 · Cited by 76
“…previous research using adolescent community samples has reported females indicating more depressive symptoms than males (Hankin & Abramson, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), whereas no gender differences have been found in depressive symptoms amongst NSSI samples (e.g., Gandhi, Luyckx, Maitra, &…”
BackgroundWakefield, J. R. H., Sani, F., Madhok, V. B., Norbury, M., Dugard, P., Gabbanelli, C., Arnetoli, M., Beconcini, G., Botindari, L., Grifoni, F., et al. (2016) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9735-z · Cited by 80
“For instance, women are twice as likely than men to experience depression (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema 2001), while being out of work has also been found to be an important predictor of mental ill-health (e.g., Artazcoz et al. 2004).”
BackgroundMedia multitasking and sleep problems: A longitudinal study among adolescents
van der Schuur, W. A., Baumgartner, S. E., Sumter, S. R., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.12.024 · Cited by 62
“With respect to the sex differences, girls are known to be particularly vulnerable to stress (e.g., Gunnar, Wewerka, Frenn, Long, & Griggs, 2009) and often deal insuf fi ciently with stress (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
InfluentialParent–Child Informant Discrepancy is Associated with Poorer Treatment Outcome
Goolsby, J., Rich, B. A., Hinnant, J. B., Habayeb, S., Berghorst, L. H., Reyes, A. D. L., & Alvord, M. K. (2017) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0946-7 · Cited by 64
Receiving Instrumental Support in Late Parent–Child Relationships and Parental Depression
Djundeva, M., Mills, M. C., Wittek, R. P. M., & Steverink, N. (2014) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbu136 · Cited by 66
Sex differences in physiological and affective responses to stress in remitted depression
Bagley, S. L., Weaver, T. L., & Buchanan, T. W. (2011) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.03.004 · Cited by 68
“In addition to sex differences in stress physiology, women also report more negative self-concepts and tend to ruminate about stressful events, which may make them more susceptible to depressive symptomatology [31].”
Narratives of Masculinity and Depression
Valkonen, J., & Hänninen, V. (2012) · Men and Masculinities · doi:10.1177/1097184x12464377 · Cited by 63
“As depression is known to be more common among women than among men, it is often seen as a women’s affliction (Nolen-Hoeksema 2001).”
BackgroundSigfúsdóttir, I. D., Ásgeirsdóttir, B. B., Sigurðsson, J. F., & Gudjonsson, G. H. (2011) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.01.003 · Cited by 63
Evaluation of the Children’s Depression Inventory—Short Version (CDI–S).
Åhlén, J., & Ghaderi, A. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000419 · Cited by 69
Frontal theta power linked to neuroticism and avoidance
Neo, P. S. ‐., & McNaughton, N. (2011) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-011-0038-x · Cited by 67
Ros, L., Latorre, J. M., Aguilar, M. J., Serrano, J. P., Bravo, B. N., & Ricarte, J. J. (2011) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ag.72.2.a · Cited by 62
Affective reactivity during adolescence: Associations with age, puberty and testosterone
Vijayakumar, N., Pfeifer, J. H., Flournoy, J. C., Hernandez, L. M., & Dapretto, M. (2019) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2019.04.024 · Cited by 72
Wang, P., Pan, R., Wu, X., Zhu, G.-C., Wang, Y., Tian, M., Sun, Y., & Wang, J. (2022) · Addictive Behaviours · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107256 · Cited by 58
Madsen, I. E. H., Diderichsen, F., Burr, H., & Rugulies, R. (2010) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.3049 · Cited by 61
Hsieh, K., Scott, H. M., & Murthy, S. (2019) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-125.1.49 · Cited by 66
“…results are consistent with previous studies, for example the finding that women are more likely to have depression, and the indications that people with autism are at an increased risk for having anxiety (Bryant, Jackson, & Ames, 2008; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; van Steensel, Bögels, & Perrin, 2011).”
Ohannessian, C. M. (2012) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00791.x · Cited by 60
Santos, N. C., Costa, P., Cunha, P., Portugal‐Nunes, C., Amorim, L., Cotter, J., Cerqueira, J., Palha, J. A., & Sousa, N. (2014) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2014.00021 · Cited by 57
Cazalla-Luna, N., & López-Barajas, D. M. (2015) · Revista de Investigación Educativa · doi:10.6018/rie.34.1.220701 · Cited by 61
“RIE, 2016, 34(1), 241-258 Al analizar los resultados del optimismo-pesimismo disposicional, coincidimos con las evidencias obtenidas por otros autores (Extremera et al., 2007; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), siendo los hombres significativamente más optimistas que las mujeres.”
BackgroundCalzada, E. J., Barajas-Gonzalez, R. G., Huang, K., & Brotman, L. M. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1041593 · Cited by 60
“Across all socioeconomic and cultural groups (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), including Latinos (Céspedes & Huey, 2008), girls are significantly more likely to experience internalizing symptoms compared to boys.”
BackgroundMen's depression and help-seeking through the lenses of gender.
Addis, M. E., & Hoffman, E. (2017) · The psychology of men and masculinities. · doi:10.1037/0000023-007 · Cited by 59
Khalid, A., Qadir, F., Chan, S. W. Y., & Schwannauer, M. (2018) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2018.1521919 · Cited by 69
Metadata
- Authors
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
- Affiliations
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2001-10
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 173-176
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- OpenAlex
- W2114965225
- Cited by
- 1,474
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 59 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 88 · 2019: 69 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 102 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 102 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 73
- FWCI
- 19.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- gender differences, depression, women, stress response, stress reactivity, stressors, depression vulnerability, adolescence, adulthood
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