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Gender Differences in Depression
Open accessAbstract
From early adolescence through adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to experience depression. Many different explanations for this gender difference in depression have been offered, but none seems to fully explain it. Recent research has focused on gender differences in stress responses, and in exposure to certain stressors. I review this research and describe how gender differences in stress experiences and stress reactivity may interact to create women's greater vulnerability to depression.
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Citations
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“Thus, a transactional model should be considered with cross-sectional data (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
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“Gender differences have been well documented in depression research (11); women are likely to report”
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“In addition, studies (Cohen & Finzi-Dottan, 2012; Coryell, Endicott, & Keller, 1992; Duke & Wood, 2006; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Shapiro, 1996) found that women experience greater distress in the year or two following divorce than men, and suffer from lower mental health.”
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Hemispheric specialization for emotional word processing is a function of SSRI responsiveness
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ADHD and depressive symptoms in adolescents: the role of community violence exposure
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Kematangan sosial dan problem focused coping pada laki-laki usia dewasa awal
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Depressive symptoms in individuals with family members requiring ADL assistance
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“Considering differences in levels of social support (Rueger et al., 2008) and depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001) by gender, studies have also sought to examine gender differences in the buffering role of peer support on depressive disorders.”
BackgroundLoss of Control: Experiences of Depression in Thai Men
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“…relationship between perceived maternal psychopathology and perceived paternal psychopathology with depression and anxiety symptoms might be different in adolescent boys than in girls, because girls are known to bemore responsive to depression than boys (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Garber et al., 2002).”
BackgroundValidación de un formato simplificado del Inventario de Depresión de Beck (BDI-2)
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A Structural Validation of the Schedule of Racist Events
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Correlates of Childhood vs. Adolescence Internalizing Symptomatology from Infancy to Young Adulthood
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“1 In light of the well documented finding that the initiation of puberty is associated with a rise in depressive and internalizing symptomatology among girls relative to boys (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Zahn-Waxler et al., 2000) we also conducted interaction analyses to examine whether child sex moderated any of the focal…”
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“Depressive symptoms also tend to escalate in early adolescence, especially in girls (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001); thus, internalizing problems are especially important to investigate in girls during this developmental period.”
BackgroundWho cares? Gender differences in social reproduction and well-being in South Africa
Posel, D. (2025) · Gender, Work & Organization · doi:10.1111/gwao.13249 · Cited by 9
Orexin (hypocretin) mediates light‐dependent fluctuation of hippocampal function in a diurnal rodent
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“This higher level of susceptibility observed in female grass rats is consistent with the femalebias seen in some neurological or psychiatric disorders, for example, Alzheimer's disease, depression, particularly seasonal affective disorder that is caused by reduced light exposure in winter (Launer et al., 1999; Lucht &…”
BackgroundLiving in Between: A Grounded Theory Study of Depression Among Middle-Class Black Women
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“Explorations of psychosocial factors also suggest gender differences in depression between men and women may be due to higher rates of traumatic events, childhood adversity, women’s social roles, interpersonal stress, and gender differences in response to stressful life events (Kessler, 2003; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Nol…”
BackgroundDifferent patterns of puberty effect in neural oscillation to negative stimuli: sex differences
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“The greater prevalence of depression in women was reported to emerge at early adolescence, approximately from 13 years of age and persists until midlife (Angold and Rutter 1992; Nolen-Hoeksema 2001).”
BackgroundRisk Perception and Worry Related to Adolescents' Judgement of Three Types of Risk
Tennfjord, O. S., & Rundmo, T. (2007) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669870601054886 · Cited by 9
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“Anxiety disorders and depression are more commonly reported in women than men and are known to play a role in substance use (Kuo, Gardner, Kendler, & Prescott, 2006; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000; Sullivan, Fiellin, & O’Connor, 2005; Sung, Prochaska, Ong, Shi, & Max, 2011).”
BackgroundOlumsuz Yaşam Olayları, Psikolojik Danışma Hizmeti Alma, Ruminasyon ve Stres Arasındaki İlişki
Aksöz-Efe, İ. (2018) · Ankara Universitesi Egitim Bilimleri Fakultesi Dergisi · doi:10.30964/auebfd.425619 · Cited by 9
Child sex moderates the relationship between cortisol stress reactivity and symptoms over time
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“The depression disparity between women and men has largely been attributed to the unique societal stressors women experience and the coping strategies they employ to manage stress (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
BackgroundThe Creative Writer, Dysphoric Rumination, and Locus of Control
Pourjalali, S., Skrzynecky, E. M., & Kaufman, J. C. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511627101.004 · Cited by 9
Gender, Drug Use, and Perceived Social Support Among HIV Positive Patients
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Depression in Low-Income Elementary School Children in South Korea
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“For example, some work suggests females are more apt to engage in ruminative responses whereas males are more apt to disengage their attention from depressive symptoms.(38) Among females, these data suggest that intervention tactics for smoking cessation may benefit from addressing craving in order to reduce to the li…”
BackgroundMiething, A., Rostila, M., & Rydgren, J. (2017) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.08.022 · Cited by 9
Thompson, I. A., Wolf, C. P., Mott, E., Baggs, A. S., Thompson, E. S., Callueng, C. M., & Puig, A. (2017) · Journal of Creativity in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/15401383.2017.1348918 · Cited by 9
“For example, women are more likely to experience major depressive disorder than men (Nolen-Hoeksema & Hilt, 2009).”
BackgroundMultiple cellular targets involved in the antidepressant-like effect of glutathione
Dafré, A. L., Rosa, J. M., Rodrigues, A. L. S., & Cunha, M. P. (2020) · Chemico-Biological Interactions · doi:10.1016/j.cbi.2020.109195 · Cited by 8
Emran, A., Iqbal, N., & Dar, K. A. (2022) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640221074919 · Cited by 12
“These results are in accord with the recent meta-analyses of Zheng et al. (2020) and Dagan et al.”
BackgroundResultSahril, N., Adnan, M. A. A., Khalil, M. K. N., Chan, Y. M., Ratnam, K. K. Y., Lai, W. K., & Ahmad, N. A. (2023) · Journal of Health Population and Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s41043-023-00480-5 · Cited by 8
“Additionally, there exists a prevalent notion of diminished expectations concerning the capabilities and accomplishments of female adolescents in comparison to males [25].”
BackgroundCamardese, G., D’Onofrio, A. M., Bardi, F., Simonetti, A., Koukopoulos, A., Janiri, D., Moccia, L., Mazza, M., Pettorruso, M., Martinotti, G., et al. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.119918 · Cited by 8
Young Women’s Selfhood on Antidepressants: “Not Fully Myself”
Wills, C., Gibson, K. L., Cartwright, C., & Read, J. (2019) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/1049732319877175 · Cited by 8
“This is likely to be particularly challenging for women who experience a range of social adversities thought to explain their higher rates of depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Ussher, 2010).”
BackgroundEmployment Status Change and New-Onset Depressive Symptoms in Permanent Waged Workers
Kim, H. D., & Park, S. (2020) · Safety and Health at Work · doi:10.1016/j.shaw.2020.09.012 · Cited by 8
Miles, J. A., & Naumann, S. E. (2023) · British Journal of Guidance and Counselling · doi:10.1080/03069885.2023.2196711 · Cited by 8
“Whereas some earlier studies have been consistent with the current study ’ s fi nding when examining a more generalised self-concept (e.g. American Psychological Association, 2016; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), others have found that girls have higher social self-concept perceptions than boys.”
Stores, R., Linceviciute, S., Pilkington, K., & Ridge, D. (2023) · Journal of Further and Higher Education · doi:10.1080/0309877x.2023.2209777 · Cited by 8
Christodoulides, E., Tsivitanidou, O., Sofokleous, G., Grečić, D., SINCLAIR, J. K., Dana, A., & Ghorbani, S. (2023) · Youth · doi:10.3390/youth3030053 · Cited by 10
Sex or Gender Leading to a High Risk of Depressive Disorder in Women
Rungreangkulkij, S., Chirawatkul, S., Kongsuk, T., Sukavaha, S., Leejongpermpoon, J., & Sutatho, Y. (2013) · Journal of the Psychiatric Association of Thailand · Cited by 8
Lecocq, A., Fortin, L., & Lessard, A. (2014) · Revue des sciences de l éducation · doi:10.7202/1027621ar · Cited by 8
Nowicki, S., Gregory, S., Ellis, G. L., Iles‐Caven, Y., & Golding, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01427 · Cited by 8
“Preadolescence is an important developmental period, one in which girls begin to develop more depressive symptomatology than boys (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002).”
BackgroundA family stress model investigation of bicultural competence among U.S. Mexican-origin youth.
Safa, M. D., White, R. M. B., & Knight, G. P. (2020) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000424 · Cited by 8
The COVID-19 Pandemic and Sustainable Life of Korean Adolescents: Exploring Gender Differences
Yu, S., & Choe, C. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13168821 · Cited by 8
“Given the heightened gender differences reflected in physical changes and mental health during adolescence [34], it is particularly necessary to consider gender differences when analyzing the pandemic’s impact.”
BackgroundEtkin, R. G., Bowker, J. C., & Simms, L. J. (2021) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2021.2012640 · Cited by 11
“…research showing that men and women oftentimes differ in friendship quality and its influence as well as internalizing problems, suggesting that gender may need to be included as a control variable in our investigation if such differences emerged (e.g. Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Rose & Rudolph, 2006).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
- Affiliations
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2001-10
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 173-176
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- OpenAlex
- W2114965225
- Cited by
- 1,474
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 59 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 88 · 2019: 69 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 102 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 102 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 73
- FWCI
- 19.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- gender differences, depression, women, stress response, stress reactivity, stressors, depression vulnerability, adolescence, adulthood
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