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Gender Differences in Depression
Open accessAbstract
From early adolescence through adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to experience depression. Many different explanations for this gender difference in depression have been offered, but none seems to fully explain it. Recent research has focused on gender differences in stress responses, and in exposure to certain stressors. I review this research and describe how gender differences in stress experiences and stress reactivity may interact to create women's greater vulnerability to depression.
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Citations
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“In line with available literature, however, we did hypothesize that women would report more depressive experiences than men (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Van de Velde et al., 2010; Salk et al., 2017) and conversely, less self-efficacy in emotion regulation (e.”
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“Finally, we explored gender differences in our model because differences in rates of internalizing symptoms appear starting in early adolescence (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), but evidence that gender moderates the association between context and process or process and outcome is mixed (Deng et al.”
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“First, adolescent girls worldwide are more vulnerable than boys to many mental health problems, particularly to internalizing problems such as depression and anxiety (e.g., Kessler, 2003; Lewinsohn et al., 1998; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; World Health Organization, 2002).”
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“● It has to be noted that worldwide, depression is two times as likely in women as in men [203] and arthritis is more likely among women [20]; consequently, in many studies overwhelming individuals with arthritis and depression were women.”
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ResultGender Differences in Depression
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Sex Differences in the Inflammatory Consequences of Stress: Implications for Pharmacotherapy
Martínez-Muñiz, G. A., & Wood, S. K. (2020) · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics · doi:10.1124/jpet.120.266205 · Cited by 53
“…risk for depression in women, but only during certain age ranges; the elevated risk emerges at the onset of puberty, persists into adulthood (Kessler et al., 1993; Hankin et al., 1998; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), and is no longer evident after menopause (Kessler et al., 1993; Hankin et al., 1998).”
BackgroundGender differences in functional connectivity during emotion regulation
Stoica, T., Knight, L. K., Naaz, F., Patton, S. C., & Depue, B. E. (2021) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107829 · Cited by 52
Fear of COVID-19 and Fear of Earthquake: Multiple Distressing Events and Well-Being in Croatia
Prizmić‐Larsen, Z., Vujčić, M. T., & Lipovčan, L. K. (2023) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941231156813 · Cited by 48
“Some authors explain these gender differences in emotional reactivity, with women having stronger subjective and physiological responses to negative emotional situations in general (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Schienle et al., 2005).”
Skipstein, A., Janson, H., Kjeldsen, A., Nilsen, W., & Mathiesen, K. S. (2012) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-1120 · Cited by 53
“Women often take care of both young children and for sick and elderly family members [17].”
BackgroundPathways to Depressive Symptoms among Former Inmates
Porter, L. C., & Novisky, M. A. (2016) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2016.1226938 · Cited by 47
“Women are more likely to ruminate, which is shown to increase depressive symptoms (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
BackgroundPain is associated with continuing depression in cancer survivors
Bamonti, P., Moye, J., & Naik, A. (2018) · Psychology, Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2018.1476723 · Cited by 48
“However, any overestimation is offset by the demographics of the current sample consisting largely of men, given lower rates of depression in men compared to women (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J., Skinner, E. A., Modecki, K. L., Webb, H. J., Gardner, A. A., Hawes, T., & Rapee, R. M. (2018) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2018.1537908 · Cited by 47
“Also, sex differences are prominent in the study of stress and coping (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Zimmer-Gembeck & Skinner, 2008).”
BackgroundRobertson, J., & Long, B. (2019) · Journal of Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2019.06.034 · Cited by 47
The Impact of Coping Flexibility on the Risk of Depressive Symptoms
Kato, T. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0128307 · Cited by 47
“These results are consistent with the literature that indicates that women experience depression more often than men [17,18].”
ResultDeckx, L., van Abbema, D. L., van den Akker, M., Broeke, C. V. D., van Driel, M., Bulens, P., Tjan‐Heijnen, V. C. G., Kenis, C., de Jonge, E. T., Houben, B., et al. (2015) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-015-0071-7 · Cited by 46
“It is known, for example, that women are more likely to report feelings of depression compared to men [35].”
BackgroundKuo, C., Operario, D., & Cluver, L. D. (2011) · Global Public Health · doi:10.1080/17441692.2011.626436 · Cited by 45
Women's well‐being: The role of individual differences
DIJKSTRA, P., & BARELDS, D. P. H. (2009) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00711.x · Cited by 46
McKelvey, L. M., Whiteside-Mansell, L., Bradley, R. H., Casey, P. H., Conners‐Burrow, N. A., & Barrett, K. W. (2010) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9448-4 · Cited by 50
Cranford, J. A., Nolen–Hoeksema, S., & Zucker, R. A. (2011) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.01.011 · Cited by 44
Self-citationAnxiety and depression in adults in their eighties: do gender differences remain?
Pachana, N. A., McLaughlin, D., Leung, J., Byrne, G. J., & Dobson, A. J. (2011) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610211001372 · Cited by 45
Peripartum depression – does it occur in fathers and does it matter?
Veskrna, L. (2010) · Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1016/j.jomh.2010.10.004 · Cited by 45
Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J., Hunter, T. A., Waters, A. M., & Pronk, R. E. (2009) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579409000303 · Cited by 46
Cohn, A. M., Johnson, A. L., Hair, E. C., Rath, J. M., & Villanti, A. C. (2016) · Tobacco Induced Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12971-015-0066-3 · Cited by 45
“Consistent with prior research, women, those with lower educational and financial means, and those currently using tobacco and other drugs were more likely to report anxiety and depression [64, 65].”
ResultThe Turkish Version of the Ruminative Response Scale: An Examination of Its Reliability and Validity
Erdur‐Baker, Ö., & Bugay, A. (2012) · OpenMETU (Middle East Technical University) · Cited by 45
Metadata
- Authors
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
- Affiliations
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2001-10
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 173-176
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- OpenAlex
- W2114965225
- Cited by
- 1,474
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 59 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 88 · 2019: 69 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 102 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 102 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 73
- FWCI
- 19.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- gender differences, depression, women, stress response, stress reactivity, stressors, depression vulnerability, adolescence, adulthood
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