Cited by 1,474Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentStress Responses and Cortisol

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Gender Differences in Depression

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Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan·2001·Current Directions in Psychological Science

DOI 10.1111/1467-8721.00142

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Abstract

From early adolescence through adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to experience depression. Many different explanations for this gender difference in depression have been offered, but none seems to fully explain it. Recent research has focused on gender differences in stress responses, and in exposure to certain stressors. I review this research and describe how gender differences in stress experiences and stress reactivity may interact to create women's greater vulnerability to depression.

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BackgroundResultInfluential
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“…it has been suggested that in adults, women are more affected by depression than men because they are exposed to more chronic strains, including a greater likelihood of living in poverty (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), it is unclear if poverty differentially affects boys’ and girls’ rates of depression.”
Background
Sexual Abuse of Children With Learning Disabilities
Helton, J. J., Gochez‐Kerr, T., & Gruber, E. (2017) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559517733814 · Cited by 37
“Children with LD report higher levels of anxiety and depression than peers without LD (Maag & Reid, 2006), and child depression, especially in girls, has also been linked to sexual assault risk (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
Background
Distinct inflammatory response patterns are evident among men and women with higher depressive symptoms
Majd, M., Graham‐Engeland, J. E., Smyth, J. M., Sliwinski, M. J., Lipton, R. B., Katz, M. J., & Engeland, C. G. (2017) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.11.009 · Cited by 35
“For reasons not fully understood, women are almost twice as likely as men to develop depression [11].”
Background
Efficacy of a hypnosis-based intervention to improve well-being during cancer: a comparison between prostate and breast cancer patients
Grégoire, C., Nicolas, H., Bragard, I., Delevallez, F., Merckaert, I., Razavi, D., Waltregny, D., Faymonville, M.-É., & Vanhaudenhuyse, A. (2018) · BMC Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12885-018-4607-z · Cited by 37
“These differences in emotional distress observed between men and women were also reported in previous studies on depressive patients [74], cancer patients [68, 75–77], gastroenterology patients [78, 79] and the general population [80].”
Result
Gender moderates the relationship between stressful life events and psychopathology: Findings from a national study.
Armstrong, J., Ronzitti, S., Hoff, R., & Potenza, M. (2018) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.09.012 · Cited by 30
“Higher rates of depression have been well documented in women across the lifespan (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Parker& Brotchie, 2010; Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000), and have been suggested to be influenced by stress (Hankin and Abramson, 2001).”
Background
Rumination and Interpersonal Dependency: Explaining Women's Vulnerability to Depression
McBride, C., & Bagby, R. (2006) · Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/cp2006008 · Cited by 36
Racial Differences in Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression Among Three Cohorts of Students in the Southern United States
Latzman, R. D., Naifeh, J. A., Watson, D., Vaidya, J. G., Heiden, L. J., Damon, J. D., Hight, T. L., & Young, J. (2011) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1521/psyc.2011.74.4.332 · Cited by 36
Memory, Maternal Representations, and Internalizing Symptomatology Among Abused, Neglected, and Nonmaltreated Children
Valentino, K., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2008) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01152.x · Cited by 37
Correlates of Depressive Disorders in the Quebec General Population 6 to 14 Years of Age
Bergeron, L., Valla, J., Smolla, N., Piché, G., Berthiaume, C., & St‐Georges, M. (2007) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9103-x · Cited by 45
Effect of Age, Initiator Status, and Infidelity on Women's Divorce Adjustment
Steiner, L. M., Suárez, E. C., Sells, J. N., & Wykes, S. D. (2011) · Journal of Divorce & Remarriage · doi:10.1080/10502556.2011.534394 · Cited by 36
Positive and negative adjustment in couples undergoing infertility treatment: The impact of support exchange
Kroemeke, A., & Kubicka, E. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0200124 · Cited by 36
Major depression in China-to-US immigrants and US-born Chinese Americans: Testing a hypothesis from culture–gene co-evolutionary theory of mental disorders
Tan, T. X. (2014) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.05.046 · Cited by 35
Major Depression and Risky Sexual Behavior Among Substance Dependent Patients: The Moderating Roles of Distress Tolerance and Gender
Tull, M. T., & Gratz, K. L. (2012) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9490-3 · Cited by 35
“Although studies have consistently demonstrated higher rates of MDD among women compared to men (Nolen-Hoeksema 2001; Piccinelli and Wilkinson 2000), few consistent gender differences in the presentation of MDD have been found (Carter et al.”
Result
Are students prone to depression and suicidal thoughts?
Mojs, E. H., Warchoł-Biedermann, K., Głowacka, M. D., Strzelecki, W., Ziemska, B., & Samborski, W. (2013) · Archives of Medical Science · doi:10.5114/aoms.2013.38179 · Cited by 35
“hormonal action, low self-esteem, maladaptive coping styles, lower social status, or sense of mastery and personal power) [30, 31].”
Gender and depression moderate response to brief motivational intervention for alcohol misuse among college students.
Merrill, J. E., Reid, A. E., Carey, M. P., & Carey, K. B. (2014) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037039 · Cited by 35
Relationship Between Depressive Symptoms and Sleep Duration/Chronotype in Women
Randler, C., Stadler, L., Vollmer, C., & Díaz‐Morales, J. F. (2012) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000089 · Cited by 35
Flying Into Depression
O'Hagan, A. D., Issartel, J., Nevill, A., & Warrington, G. (2017) · Workplace Health & Safety · doi:10.1177/2165079916659506 · Cited by 30
“According to Nolen-Hoeksema (2001), from adolescence though adulthood, women are twice as likely to experience depression as men.”
Background
Risk factors for new-onset depression or anxiety following total joint arthroplasty: the role of chronic opioid use
Wilson, L. A., Bekeris, J., Fiasconaro, M., Liu, J., Poeran, J., Kim, D. H., Valle, A. G. D., & Memtsoudis, S. G. (2019) · Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine · doi:10.1136/rapm-2019-100785 · Cited by 35
The Barcelona Brain Health Initiative: Cohort description and first follow-up
Cattaneo, G., Bartrés‐Faz, D., Morris, T. P., Sánchez, J. S., Macià, D., Tormos, J. M., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0228754 · Cited by 40
“Among the younger group, particularly women might be expected to be diagnosed with depression [11,12], while among the older group, mild cognitive impairment and dementia would be predicted to be the most common diagnoses [2,4,6].”
Background
Gender Differences in Stress Generation: Examination of Interpersonal Predictors
Bouchard, L. C., & Shih, J. H. (2013) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2013.32.4.424 · Cited by 38
Sociological Scholarship on Gender Differences in Emotion and Emotional Well-Being in the United States: A Snapshot of the Field
Simon, R. W. (2014) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073914522865 · Cited by 35
Depression, emotion regulation, and the demand/withdraw pattern during intimate relationship conflict
Holley, S. R., Haase, C. M., Chui, I., & Bloch, L. (2017) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407517733334 · Cited by 39
“The focus on women may reflect the fact that depression more commonly occurs in women than in men (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001) but may also bias the data by ignoring the potential impact of male depression on this dyadic communication pattern.”
Background
Diverse Patterns in the Development of Depressive Symptoms Among Emerging Adults
Frye, A. A., & Liem, J. H. (2011) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558411402336 · Cited by 41
Men's use of positive strategies for preventing and managing depression: A qualitative investigation
Fogarty, A. S., Proudfoot, J. G., Whittle, E. L., Player, M. J., Christensen, H. M., Hadži-Pavlović, D., & Wilhelm, K. A. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.08.070 · Cited by 35
Major Depressive Disorder and Measures of Cellular Aging: An Integrative Review
Kinser, P. A., & Lyon, D. (2013) · Nursing Research and Practice · doi:10.1155/2013/469070 · Cited by 34
“2% [1] with women experiencing a disproportionately higher burden of MDD than men [2, 3].”
Background
Sex-specific sleep patterns among university students in Lebanon: impact on depression and academic performance
Kabrita, C. S., & Hajjar-Muça, T. (2016) · Nature and Science of Sleep · doi:10.2147/nss.s104383 · Cited by 34
Effects of IL-6 and cortisol fluctuations in post-stroke depression
Zhang, X., Zou, W., & Yang, Y. (2016) · Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology [Medical Sciences] · doi:10.1007/s11596-016-1653-0 · Cited by 35
Profiling coping strategies in male and female rats: Potential neurobehavioral markers of increased resilience to depressive symptoms
Kent, M., Bardi, M., Hazelgrove, A., Sewell, K., Kirk, E., Thompson, B., Trexler, K. R., Terhune‐Cotter, B., & Lambert, K. G. (2017) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.07.011 · Cited by 34
Factors of depression among patients with rheumatoid arthritis
Kwiatkowska, B., Kłak, A., Maślińska, M., Mańczak, M., & Raciborski, F. (2018) · Reumatologia/Rheumatology · doi:10.5114/reum.2018.77973 · Cited by 34
“Results of the present study did not show a significant dependence of depression symptoms on sex, but it is known that in the general population women suffer from depression definitely more often than men [20, 21].”
Background
Gender differences in the development of suicidal behavior among United States military veterans: A national qualitative study
Denneson, L. M., Tompkins, K. J., McDonald, K. L., Hoffmire, C. A., Britton, P. C., Carlson, K. F., Smolenski, D. J., & Dobscha, S. K. (2020) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113178 · Cited by 34

Authors: Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
Affiliations: Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Venue: Current Directions in Psychological Science
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2001-10
Volume: 10
Issue: 5
Pages: 173-176
ISSN: 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
1467-8721
DOI: 10.1111/1467-8721.00142
OpenAlex: W2114965225
Cited by: 1,474
References: 16
Citations by year: 2026: 34 · 2025: 59 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 88 · 2019: 69 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 102 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 102 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 73
FWCI: 19.51
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
hdl.handle.net
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
Keywords: gender differences, depression, women, stress response, stress reactivity, stressors, depression vulnerability, adolescence, adulthood

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