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Gender Differences in Depression
Open accessAbstract
From early adolescence through adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to experience depression. Many different explanations for this gender difference in depression have been offered, but none seems to fully explain it. Recent research has focused on gender differences in stress responses, and in exposure to certain stressors. I review this research and describe how gender differences in stress experiences and stress reactivity may interact to create women's greater vulnerability to depression.
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Citations
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“This is consistent with our hypothesis and with previous research indicating that adult females are twice as likely to experience depression as males due to differences in exposure to adversity, biological stress reactivity, and other factors (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
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“Otherwise, women are more likely than men to have a dysregulated hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which makes them more likely to suffer from depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
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Gender Differences in the Incidence of Depression and Anxiety: Econometric Evidence from the USA
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“Youth gender was controlled for in paths predicting each of the age 20 mediators and the age 21 outcome variable, as prior research suggests higher rates of depressive symptoms, chronic stress and self-reported physical health impairment among women than men (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Wilson, Pritchard, & Revalee, 2004).”
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“As women are more likely to ruminate, and men are more likely to take action in response to depression, 25 we speculate that the active nature of this intervention may have had a greater impact on women because it activated a problem-solving response that countered their tendency to ruminate.”
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“Females are twice as likely as males to experience symptoms of depression (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema 2001).”
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“For example, research also indicates that women are also more likely to develop depression after stressful experiences due to differences in biological, physiological, and psychological reactivity to stress (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
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Does the Hopelessness Theory Account for Sex Differences in Depressive Symptoms Among Young Adults?
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“Recent research has focused on gender differences in stress responses, and in exposure to certain stressors (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
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The Role of Boomerang Fathers in Adolescent Female Depression
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“Previous research indicates women and non-White individuals are more likely to ruminate than men and White individuals (Meints et al. 2017; Nolen-Hoeksema 2001).”
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BackgroundInfluentialPredictors of depression severity in a treatment-seeking sample
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“The risk of depression increases in adolescence (Birmaher and Ryan 1996), and girls are twice as likely as boys to experience depression from early adolescence (Costello et al. 2003; Nolen-Hoeksema 2001).”
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“…and that gender moderates the relationship between rumination and severity of depression, with stronger associations for females than males (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema 2001), it will be important to consider whether females and males tend to experience depressive cognitions in different forms (visual…”
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“Finding effective emotion-regulation strategies which can decrease rumination are especially important for women, who are more likely to experience rumination and clinical depression compared to men (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
BackgroundTransgender and Gender Diverse Clients with Mental Disorders
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“The following groups seem to be more at risk for developing DS: women more than men (Bell et al., 2005; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), single persons more than people living in partnership (Hybels, Blazer, & Pieper, 2001; Swenson, Baxter, Shetterly, Scarbro, & Hamman, 2000), and people in poor…”
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“This trend for a gender difference in depression is consistent with previous literature (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
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Nikulina, V., Bautista, A., & Brown, E. J. (2016) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260516676475 · Cited by 23
Arbona, C., Burridge, A. B., & Olvera, N. E. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.05.024 · Cited by 20
Wong, M. M.-H., Puttler, L. I., Nigg, J. T., & Zucker, R. A. (2018) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.02.006 · Cited by 21
“Gender was used as a covariate to predict resilience due to documented differences in AUD (49), substance-related problems (50) and depression (51).”
Method[The relationship between depression, and interpersonal style, self-perception, and anger].
Şahin, N. H., Batıgün, A. D., & Koç, V. (2011) · PubMed · Cited by 20
Coren, S., & Luthar, S. S. (2014) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21795 · Cited by 21
“This finding indicates that in hyper-achievement-oriented settings, boys may experience distress not only in traditionally male problems of externalizing behaviors, but may also struggle considerably with covert, traditionally female symptoms of an internalizing nature (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002).”
BackgroundOi, K., & Wilkinson, L. (2018) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1234-3 · Cited by 22
Dotson, J. L., Bricker, J. B., Kappelman, M. D., Chisolm, D. J., & Crandall, W. (2015) · Inflammatory Bowel Diseases · doi:10.1097/mib.0000000000000521 · Cited by 19
“Infection (others) 585 340 (12) 245 (8) 0.”
DEPRESSION AMONG TURKISH FEMALE AND MALE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Ceyhan, E., Ceyhan, A. A., & Kurtyilmaz, Y. (2005) · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · doi:10.2224/sbp.2005.33.4.329 · Cited by 19
Kodjebacheva, G. D., Kruger, D. J., Rybarczyk, G., & Cupal, S. (2014) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdu062 · Cited by 21
McIntyre, J., Spence, P. R., & Lachlan, K. A. (2011) · Journal of School Violence · doi:10.1080/15388220.2011.578555 · Cited by 20
Lizardi, D., Thompson, R. G., Keyes, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (2010) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e3181ef218c · Cited by 19
Reeb, B. T., & Conger, K. J. (2011) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsr016 · Cited by 27
“Consistent with previous research on gender differences in the prevalence of internalizing problems (see Nolen-Hoeksema & Hilt, 2009), being male was negatively associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms.”
ResultTemporary amygdala inhibition reduces stress effects in female mice
Dalooei, J. R., Sahraei, H., Meftahi, G. H., Khosravi, M., Bahari, Z., Hatef, B., Mohammadi, A., Nicaeili, F., Eftekhari, F., Ghamari, F., et al. (2016) · Journal of Advanced Research · doi:10.1016/j.jare.2016.06.008 · Cited by 18
“Gender differences in the incidence and prevalence of psychological disorders related to stress have been offered; for instance, when women and men experience the same stressors, women may be more prone than men to develop depression [11].”
BackgroundVargas, I., Mayer, S. E., & Lopez‐Duran, N. L. (2016) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.2691 · Cited by 20
“sleep and gender) previously linked to both depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Riemann, Berger, & Voderholzer, 2001) and CAR (Elder, Wetherell, Barclay, & Ellis, 2014; Pruessner et al.”
BackgroundSubclinical depression in Urban Indian adolescents: Prevalence, felt needs, and correlates
Singhal, M., Manjula, M., & Sagar, K. V. (2016) · Indian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/0019-5545.196727 · Cited by 19
“[24,25,48,49] Explanations for this gender difference in literature have included hormonal changes, increased stress, differences in interpersonal orientation, tendencies toward rumination and other maladaptive responses to stress, and different socialization experiences.[50]”
BackgroundGrowth, behavioural, serum biochemical and morphological changes in female rabbits fed high‐fat diet
Shao, J., Wang, J., Li, Y., Elzo, M. A., Tang, T., Lai, T., Ma, Y., Gan, M., Wang, L., Jia, X., et al. (2020) · Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition · doi:10.1111/jpn.13459 · Cited by 19
Culture Moderates the Relation Between Gender Inequality and Well-Being
Li, C., Zuckerman, M., & Diener, E. (2021) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797620972492 · Cited by 19
“These disparities were used as explanations for a number of gender differences, including women’s greater susceptibility to depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001) and indications of lower self-esteem (Kling et al.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMorack, J., Infurna, F. J., Ram, N., & Gerstorf, D. (2013) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025413492605 · Cited by 21
“…having poorer physical and mental health, a greater number of incapacitating conditions and acute health issues, as well as a higher risk for depression than men (Case & Paxson, 2005; Crimmins et al., 2010; McCullough & Laurenceau, 2004; Moen, 1996; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1999; Smith & Baltes, 1998).”
BackgroundMusical preferences and depression in adolescence
Miranda, D., & Claes, M. (2007) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2007.9747981 · Cited by 26
Smartphone Ownership, Age of Smartphone Acquisition, and Health Outcomes in Early Adolescence
Barzilay, R., Pimentel, S. D., Tran, K. T., Visoki, E., Pagliaccio, D., & Auerbach, R. P. (2025) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2025-072941 · Cited by 26
Metadata
- Authors
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
- Affiliations
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2001-10
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 173-176
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- OpenAlex
- W2114965225
- Cited by
- 1,474
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 59 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 88 · 2019: 69 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 102 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 102 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 73
- FWCI
- 19.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- gender differences, depression, women, stress response, stress reactivity, stressors, depression vulnerability, adolescence, adulthood
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