Cited by 1,474Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentStress Responses and Cortisol

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Gender Differences in Depression

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Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan·2001·Current Directions in Psychological Science

DOI 10.1111/1467-8721.00142

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Abstract

From early adolescence through adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to experience depression. Many different explanations for this gender difference in depression have been offered, but none seems to fully explain it. Recent research has focused on gender differences in stress responses, and in exposure to certain stressors. I review this research and describe how gender differences in stress experiences and stress reactivity may interact to create women's greater vulnerability to depression.

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“…in mental health risk include increased rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008), increased societal expectations tied to caregiving roles (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), and higher rates of previous exposure to sexual assault and interpersonal violence, anxiety sensitivity, or peritraumatic…”
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“During adolescence, the incidence of both depressive symptoms and disorder increases [2-5].”
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“The findings were supportive of research in other samples (for reviews, see Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001) and the Cognitive Vulnerability-Transactional Stress Depression Model (Hankin Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 9 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 601732 and…”
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Longitudinal Relationship Between Bullying Victimization and Depression Among Left-Behind Children: Roles of Negative Thoughts and Self-Compassion
Yan, R., Xie, R., Jiang, M., Li, J., Lin, X., & Ding, W. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.852634 · Cited by 36
“Gender differences in depression can be seen as serious health disparities, in which females are more prone to depression than males (Nolen-Hoeksema and Hilt, 2009; Hyde and Mezulis, 2020).”
Background
Depression in Children and Adolescents
Garber, J., & Rao, U. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9608-3_25 · Cited by 35
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Background
Deliberate self-harm in adolescence: The impact of childhood experiences, negative affect and fears of compassion
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“This two-fold increased risk is known to emerge at the onset of puberty, persists into adulthood (Kessler et al., 1993; Hankin et al., 1998; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), and ends following menopause (Kessler et al., 1993; Hankin et al., 1998) strongly suggesting that ovarian hormones may mediate this…”
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Steiber, N. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112603 · Cited by 32
“…of social mobility effects decreases with age (social mobility model) 14 In this context, some research suggests that women are less capable of adapting to new social environments than 15 men and are for this reason more likely to report stres and suffer from depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
Background
Effectiveness of a Multidisciplinary Worksite Stress Reduction Programme for Women
Werneburg, B. L., Herman, L. L., Preston, H. R., Rausch, S. M., Warren, B. A., Olsen, K. D., & Clark, M. M. (2011) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.1380 · Cited by 32
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“A further complication with the translation of much of the animal research on depression and anxiety to PPD and anxiety patients is that most animal studies are restricted to male subjects and there are significant sex differences in depression [41].”
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“, physical appearance, social functioning) have been included in theories considering why gender differences in depressive symptoms emerge (Hankin et al. 2008; Hyde et al. 2008; Nolen-Hoeksema 2001).”
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Brief report: Cross-sectional interactions between expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal and its relationship with depressive symptoms in autism spectrum disorder
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“In this sense, and although researchers have proposed a number of individual variables to account for gender differences in depression (see Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), studies broadening our understanding about the mechanisms that explain depression in women are noteworthy.”
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Health behaviors and needs of melanoma survivors
Palesh, O. G., Aldridge-Gerry, A. A., Bugos, K. G., Pickham, D. M., Chen, J. J., Greco, R. S., & Swetter, S. M. (2014) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-014-2286-0 · Cited by 31
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Panagiotakos, D. B., Mamplekou, E., Pitsavos, C. E., Kalogeropoulos, N., Kastorini, C.-M., Papageorgiou, C., Papadimitriou, G. N., & Stefanadis, C. (2010) · Journal of the American College of Nutrition · doi:10.1080/07315724.2010.10719897 · Cited by 31
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dos Santos, B. E., Giacomini, A. C. V. V., Marcon, L., Demin, K. A., Strekalova, T. V., de Abreu, M. S., & Kalueff, A. V. (2021) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2021.135993 · Cited by 32
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Background
Biological underpinnings of an internalizing pathway to alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use.
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Background
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Background
Depression and suicidality among adolescents living with human immunodeficiency virus in Lagos, Nigeria
Adeyemo, S., Adeosun, I. I., OGUN, O. C., Adewuya, A. O., David, A., Adegbohun, A. A., Adejumo, O., Ogunlowo, O., & Adeyemo, O. O. (2020) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-020-00337-3 · Cited by 30
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Background
A profile-based sentiment-aware approach for depression detection in social media
Titla-Tlatelpa, J. D. J., Ortega-Mendoza, R. M., Montes-y-Gómez, M., & Villaseñor-Pineda, L. (2021) · EPJ Data Science · doi:10.1140/epjds/s13688-021-00309-3 · Cited by 32
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Background
Paediatric Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Depressive Symptoms: Clinical Correlates and CBT Treatment Outcomes
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Background
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Result
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Background
Shyness Predicts Depressive Symptoms Among Adolescents
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Background
Effective treatment of depression improves post-myocardial infarction survival
Banankhah, S. K., Friedmann, E., & Thomas, S. (2015) · World Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.4330/wjc.v7.i4.215 · Cited by 30
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“The pattern of relationships in Figure 1 is, perhaps, illustrative of the increased risk for depression among women (e.g. Kessler et al., 2007; Kuehner, 2003; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000; Weissman et al., 1996).”
Background
Individual and Day-to-Day Differences in Active Coping Predict Diurnal Cortisol Patterns among Early Adolescent Girls
Sladek, M. R., Doane, L. D., & Stroud, C. B. (2016) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0591-2 · Cited by 31
“chopathology by virtue of their gender and developmental status (Gore et al. 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema 2001).”
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The relationships between brain structural changes and perceived loneliness in older adults suffering from late‐life depression
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“This gender composition is in line with previous literature showing the prevalence rate of depression to be higher in females compared to males.(37) Moreover, it is noted that the mean age in the ME group is greater than the other 2 groups and statistical analysis showed the significant differences lies between the SE…”
Result
Daily Hassles and African American Adolescent Females’ Psychological Functioning: Direct and Interactive Associations with Gender Role Orientation
Cooper, S. M., Guthrie, B. J., Brown, C., & Metzger, I. W. (2011) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0019-0 · Cited by 28
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“Numerous studies indicate that in the here-and-now, positive thinking feels better than negative thinking (Carver, Scheier, & Segerstrom, 2010; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
Background
Self-Compassion, Work Engagement and Job Performance among Intensive Care Nurses during COVID-19 Pandemic: The Mediation Role of Mental Health and the Moderating Role of Gender
Joneghani, R. B. N., Joneghani, R. B. N., Dustmohammadloo, H., Bouzari, P., Ebrahimi, P., & Fekete‐Farkas, M. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11131884 · Cited by 51
Planning Time Management in School Activities and Relation to Procrastination: A Study for Educational Sustainability
Valente, S. N., Domínguez-Lara, S., & Lourenço, A. A. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16166883 · Cited by 28
Electrophysiological evidence of the time course of attentional bias in non-patients reporting symptoms of depression with and without co-occurring anxiety
Sass, S. M., Heller, W., Fisher, J. E., Silton, R. L., Stewart, J. L., Crocker, L. D., Edgar, J. C., Mimnaugh, K. J., & Miller, G. A. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00301 · Cited by 31
“Women are estimated to suffer from depression and anxiety twice as often as men (Weissman et al., 1996; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Craske, 2003).”
Background
Gender differences in the prevalence and clinical correlates of sleep disturbance in general hospital outpatients
Zheng, W., Luo, X.-N., Li, H., Ke, X.-Y., Dai, Q., Zhang, C.-J., Cassidy, R. M., Zhang, X., & Ning, Y.-P. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.08.043 · Cited by 28
COVID-19 and Resilience in Schools: Implications for Practice and Policy
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Healing a Vulnerable Self
Nielsen, M. B. D., Rugulies, R., Hjortkjær, C., Bültmann, U., & Christensen, U. (2012) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/1049732312468252 · Cited by 28
“This gender gap might be attributable to differences in stress exposures, stress responses, or both (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
Background
Paths to Depression Among Two Different Cultural Contexts
Abu‐Kaf, S., & Braun‐Lewensohn, O. (2015) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022115575738 · Cited by 28
“Although previous studies have found no gender differences in self-criticism (Blatt, 2004), women are twice as likely as men to develop depressive symptoms (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema & Hilt, 2009).”
BackgroundResult
Depression and Self-Reported Disability Among Older People in Western Europe
Pagán, R., & Pérez, S. (2012) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264312453070 · Cited by 29
“Depression has become one of society’s most common illnesses (Katon & Schulberg, 1992; World Health Organization [WHO], 2008) and one which has strong repercussions and lasting effects not only on the person suffering from the disease but also for family members and society in general (Beach, 2001; Murray & Lopez, 199…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
The longitudinal relationship between control over working hours and depressive symptoms: Results from SLOSH, a population-based cohort study
Albrecht, S., Kecklund, G., Rajaleid, K., & Leineweber, C. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.03.010 · Cited by 28
Online sexual harassment and negative mood in Croatian female adolescents
Mitchell, K., & Štulhofer, A. (2021) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-020-01506-7 · Cited by 27
Family ties and depression across the life course: An Overview
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“According to Ross et al. (1990) children can protect people from depressive mood by offering affection and social support, but can also generate depression by invoking stress.”
Background
Gender is what you look like: Emerging gender identities in young children and preoccupation with appearance
Halim, M. L., Gutiérrez, B. C., Bryant, D. N., Arredondo, M. M., & Takesako, K. (2018) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2017.1412344 · Cited by 27
“…in emerging adults is linked to less interest in math and science and lower overall intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy (Gapinski, Brownell, & LaFrance, 2003; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001) and can consume mental resources, interfering with math performance (Kiefer, Sekaquaptewa, & Barczyk, 2006).”
Background
‘Silencing the self’ and women’s mental health problems: A narrative review
Emran, A., Iqbal, N., & Dar, I. A. (2020) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102197 · Cited by 36
The Role of Gender in the Association Among the Emotional Intelligence, Anxiety and Depression
Sergi, M. R., Picconi, L., Tommasi, M., Saggino, A., Ebisch, S. J. H., & Spoto, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.747702 · Cited by 36
“This aspect leads to a difficulty to regulate the stressor, making women more vulnerable to depressive symptoms (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Weiss et al., 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Oh et al., 2018).”
Background
The Combined Effects of Self-Referent Information Processing and Ruminative Responses on Adolescent Depression
Black, S. W., & Pössel, P. (2012) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9827-y · Cited by 27
Sex differences in coping strategies in military survival school
Schmied, E. A., Padilla, G. A., Thomsen, C. J., Lauby, M. D. H., Harris, E., & Taylor, M. K. (2014) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.10.005 · Cited by 27
Moderation of gender on smoking and depression in Chinese Americans
Luk, J. W., & Tsoh, J. Y. (2010) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.06.021 · Cited by 27
The Later, the Better? Early, Average, and Late Timing of Sexual Experiences in Adolescence and Psychosocial Adjustment in Young Adulthood
Haase, C. M., Landberg, M., Schmidt, C., Lüdke, K., & Silbereisen, R. Κ. (2011) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000082 · Cited by 32
Stress-induced attenuation of acoustic startle in low-saccharin-consuming rats
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Gender and Stress Generation: An Examination of Interpersonal Predictors
Shih, J. H., & Auerbach, R. P. (2010) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2010.3.4.332 · Cited by 30
The relationship between meaning in life, emotions and psychological illness: The moderating role of the effects of the economic crisis
Pezirkianidis, C., Stalikas, A., Efstathiou, E., & Karakasidou, E. (2016) · The European Journal of Counselling Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejcop.v4i1.75 · Cited by 29
“Women are more likely to manifest depressive (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Sadock & Sadock, 2012), anxiety (Kinrys &Wygant, 2005; Sadock & Sadock, 2012) and stress symptoms than men (APA, 2011, 2012).”
BackgroundResult
Sexual Orientation and Diabetes During the Transition to Adulthood
Liu, H., Chen, I., Wilkinson, L., Pearson, J., & Zhang, Y. (2019) · LGBT Health · doi:10.1089/lgbt.2018.0153 · Cited by 30
“Moreover, the association between sexual minority status and diabetes risk may differ for men and women, given previous research on gendered responses to stress as well as the ways in which sex/gender and sexual orientation interact to shape health.(35) 38 For example, women are found to be more likely than men to res…”
Background
Female Deliberate Self-Harm: The Women’s Perspectives
Curtis, C. (2018) · Women's Studies · doi:10.1080/00497878.2018.1524762 · Cited by 10
Sex Differences in Child and Adolecent Psychopathology: An Introduction to the Special Section
Kistner, J. A. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410902976387 · Cited by 26
A Study of the Coupling of FET Temperament Traits with Major Depression
Trofimova, I. N., & Sulis, W. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01848 · Cited by 27
Negative association between BMI and depressive symptoms in middle aged and elderly Chinese: Results from a national household survey
Zhou, Q., Wang, T., & Basu, K. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.08.107 · Cited by 26
The association of diabetes duration and glycemic control with depression in elderly men with type 2 diabetes mellitus
Kim, H. J., An, S., Han, S. J., Kim, D. J., Hong, C. H., Kim, Y. H., Shin, D. H., Kim, N. H., Seo, J. A., Ahn, Y., et al. (2019) · Journal of Research in Medical Sciences · doi:10.4103/jrms.jrms_43_18 · Cited by 28
“It has been reported that women suffer from depression twice as much as males, and possible contributing factors according to gender are higher stress experiences and reactivity to stress caused by hormonal effects, more negative self‐concepts, and distress due to rumination.[20]”
Background
Perceived social support and depression symptoms in patients with major depressive disorder in Taiwan: An association study
Shih, T.-Y., Cheng, S.-L., Chang, S. H., & Sun, H.-F. (2020) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2020.06.004 · Cited by 29
Effects of Adolescent Universal Substance Misuse Preventive Interventions on Young Adult Depression Symptoms: Mediational Modeling
Trudeau, L., Spoth, R. L., Mason, W. A., Randall, G. K., Redmond, C. R., & Schainker, L. M. (2015) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-015-9995-9 · Cited by 26
Association between childhood adversities and adulthood depressive symptoms in South Korea: results from a nationally representative longitudinal study
Kim, S., Jang, H., Chang, H. Y., Park, Y. S., & Lee, D. W. (2013) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002680 · Cited by 26
“Our findings is also partially supported by the reporting of previous study that women may be more sensitive to CA compared with men.(13) However, prevalence of parental divorce was lowest among the four CAs (1.”
Result
Incidence of Major Depressive Disorder
Lee, C., Chiang, Y.-C., Huang, J., Tantoh, D. M., Nfor, O. N., Lee, J.-F., Chang, C., & Liaw, Y. (2016) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000003110 · Cited by 26
Revisiting Hispanic Adolescents' Resilience to the Effects of Parental Problem Drinking and Life Stress
Barrera, M., Hageman, D. N., & Gonzales, N. A. (2004) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1023/b:ajcp.0000040148.72858.81 · Cited by 26
Age-Varying Links Between Violence Exposure and Behavioral, Mental, and Physical Health
Russell, M. A., Vasilenko, S. A., & Lanza, S. T. (2016) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.03.038 · Cited by 25
“pressures during adolescence and young adulthood that may exacerbate this vulnerability [31].”
Effect of gender-related depression on heart rate variability during an autonomic nervous test
Kuang, D., Cui, L., Kuang, S., Yang, R., Chen, X., Zhang, L., Lv, R., Ou, S., & Song, C. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.099 · Cited by 25
Sex differences in ketamine's therapeutic effects for mood disorders: A systematic review
Benitah, K. C., Siegel, A. N., Lipsitz, O., Rodrigues, N. B., Meshkat, S., Lee, Y. L., Mansur, R. B., Nasri, F., Lui, L. M. W., McIntyre, R. S., et al. (2022) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114579 · Cited by 24

Authors: Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
Affiliations: Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Venue: Current Directions in Psychological Science
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2001-10
Volume: 10
Issue: 5
Pages: 173-176
ISSN: 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
1467-8721
DOI: 10.1111/1467-8721.00142
OpenAlex: W2114965225
Cited by: 1,474
References: 16
Citations by year: 2026: 34 · 2025: 59 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 88 · 2019: 69 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 102 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 102 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 73
FWCI: 19.51
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
hdl.handle.net
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
Keywords: gender differences, depression, women, stress response, stress reactivity, stressors, depression vulnerability, adolescence, adulthood

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