The Impact of COVID‐19‐Related School Closures on Student Achievement—A Meta‐Analysis
Open accessAbstract
COVID‐19 led to school closures and the necessity to use remote learning in 2020 and 2021 around the globe. This article provides results for a three‐level random‐effects meta‐analysis examining the average effect of the COVID‐19‐related school closures with respect to several moderator variables. The results showed a robust average effect of , . The moderator analysis was largely insignificant; however, the results tentatively point out that younger students in schools were more negatively affected compared to older students, and that the negative effect reduced with subsequent lockdowns in autumn and winter 2020/2021. The results are discussed with respect to potential explanations.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This meta-analysis finds a small but statistically significant negative average effect of COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement. Moderator results are largely tentative: younger/primary students and earlier spring 2020 closures tended to show larger negative effects, while online-learning-app studies sometimes showed positive effects.
Key findings
- The three-level random-effects model estimated an average effect of \(d = -0.175\) (\(SE = 0.063\), \(p = 0.013\), 95% CI \([-0.308, -0.041]\)).
- The three-level model fit better than a two-level model with between-study heterogeneity fixed to zero (\(\chi^2_1 = 22.36\), \(p < 0.001\)); variance components were \(\tau_{L2} = 0.345\) and \(\tau_{L3} = 0.194\), with ICC = 0.241 and \(I^2_{L2} = 75.91\%\), \(I^2_{L3} = 24.06\%\).
- Moderator analyses were largely insignificant, but the authors report tendencies that school-based learning was more negatively affected than learning apps, primary students were more affected than secondary students, and effects were more negative in spring 2020 than in later lockdowns.
- Based on a typical spring 2020 closure duration of seven to eight weeks, the authors report a weekly learning loss of \(-0.022\), within the range of summer learning losses (\(d = -0.005\) to \(-0.050\) SD per week).
Methods
- Systematic three-stage literature search: reviews/overviews, Web of Science for April 30, 2021–September 15, 2021, and preprint servers PsyArXiv, EdArXiv, and SocArXiv, yielding 425 potentially relevant studies.
- Inclusion criteria required a focus on COVID-19-related school closures, primary/secondary education, student achievement as dependent variable, pre- and post-closure data, appropriate statistical analyses, and reported or calculable effect sizes; 18 studies with 109 effect sizes were included.
- Main analysis was a three-level random-effects meta-analysis using the R package metafor with restricted maximum likelihood estimation, inverse-variance weighting, and cluster-robust covariance matrices; moderators were mode (school vs. learning app), school type (primary vs. secondary), and timing (spring 2020 vs. later lockdowns).
Limitations
- The paper states that the cluster sample of 18 studies is small, below the usual minimum of 20 clusters for accurate variance components and standard errors, and that statistical power for moderator tests was low.
- The paper states that moderator results were mostly insignificant and should be interpreted tentatively; publication-bias asymmetry tests were significant (\(\tau = -0.149\), \(p = 0.023\); \(z = -2.203\), \(p = 0.028\)), though the fail-safe \(N = 299\) suggested publication bias was unlikely.
- The risk-of-bias assessment found the highest risk due to lack of inclusion of potential confounding variables, and the paper notes that no information could be obtained about deviations from intended interventions except for Clark et al. (2020).
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
5 of 10 cited sources checked · 5 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingcitation
Positive effects of COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement were almost exclusively reported by studies using data from learning apps or online learning environments.
“Positive effects of the COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement were almost exclusively reported by studies using data from learning apps or online learning environments (Meeter, 2021;Spitzer & Musslick, 2021;van der Velde et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
The results confirm the core conclusion of prior synthesizing research examining the first phase of school closures.
“The results confirm the core conclusion of prior synthesizing research examining the first phase school closures.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Hammerstein et al., 2021 source
- Study design and conductcitation
Cluster-robust covariance matrices were used to account for dependencies between effect sizes stemming from the same study and the small number of studies.
“To account for dependencies between effect sizes stemming from the same study and the small number of studies, we report estimates and standard errors based on cluster-robust covariance matrices (Pustejovsky & Tipton, 2018).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Pustejovsky & Tipton, 2018 source
- Findingown data
The average effect of COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement is d = -0.175 (SE = 0.063, p = 0.013, 95% CI [-0.308, -0.041]).
“The results showed a robust average effect of d = -0.175(SE= 0.063, p = 0.013, 95%CI[-0.308,-0.041]).”
- Also stated in: § Results · boosted
“It yielded a robust estimate of the average effect of COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement of -0.175(SE = 0.063, p = 0.013, 95%CI[-0.308,-0.041]).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · boosted
- Findingown data
The three-level random-effects model provided a significantly better fit than a two-level model with between-study heterogeneity fixed to zero (χ2(1) = 22.36, p < 0.001).
“We found that the three-level model provided a significantly better fit compared to the twolevel model (χ 2 1 = 22.36, p < 0.001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
The negative effect of COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement tended to be more pronounced during the first lockdown in spring 2020 than in later lockdown phases (fall 2020 or later).
“the negative effect reduced with subsequent lockdowns in autumn and winter 2020/2021.”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Lastly, the negative effect of the COVID-19-related school closures tended to be more pronounced during the first lockdown in spring 2020 than in the later lockdown phases.”
- Also stated in: § Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice · plain
“the effect of the COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement being more severe in case of the early lockdown, compared to the lockdowns implement later.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · hedged
- Findingown data
The meta-regression results tentatively indicate that students in primary education were more negatively affected by COVID-19-related school closures than students in secondary education.
“the results tentatively point out that younger students in schools were more negatively affected compared to older students”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Similarly, compared to students in secondary education, students in primary education tended to be more affected by the COVID-19-related school closures.”
- Also stated in: § Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice · plain
“the results point to the fact that students in primary education were affected more severely than students in secondary education were.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · hedged
- Interpretationcitation
The weekly learning loss during the spring 2020 school closures lies in the range of summer learning losses (d = -0.005 SD to -0.050 SD per week).
“which lies in the range of summer learning losses (d = -0.005SD to -0.050 SD per week; Kuhfeld, Ruzek et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kuhfeld, Ruzek et al., 2020 source
- Interpretationown data
Remote learning seemed to be more effective in later lockdown phases compared to spring 2020.
“Remote learning seemed to be more effective in later lockdown phase compared to spring 2020”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Scaffolding provided by teachers in regular instruction is very important for younger students.
“scaffolding provided by teachers in regular instruction is very important for them (Tomasik et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tomasik et al., 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
The weekly learning loss during the spring 2020 COVID-19-related school closures was -0.022 SD per week.
“Thus, we have a weekly learning loss of -0.022”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The typical duration of COVID-19-related school closures in spring 2020 was seven to eight weeks.
- Study design and conductreasoning
Bias due to selection of participants was unlikely because the groups were formed naturally.
“Bias due to selection of participants was unlikely as the groups were formed naturally.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Most included studies exhibited very small proportions of missing data, with exceptions being Depping et al. (2021) and Domingue et al. (2021).
“Most studies exhibited very small proportions of missing data (exceptions are Depping et al., 2021 andDomingue et al., 2021)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
A three-level random-effects model was employed to account for the nested data structure of 109 effect sizes nested in 18 studies.
“To account for this nested data structure, we employed a three-level random-effects model as primary metaanalytic model to estimate the average effect of COVID-19related school closures on student achievement.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Using already established online learning apps can promote achievement compared to typical in-person teaching.
“using already established online learning apps can even promote achievement compared to typical in-person teaching.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning
Bias due to missing data, measurement of outcomes, or selection of reported results is unlikely.
“Lastly, bias due to missing data, measurement of outcomes, or selection of reported results is unlikely.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 4
- May combine two claims. 5
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitationThe risk of bias of the 18 included studies was assessed using the ROBINS-I tool.
“The Cochrane Risk Assessment of the 18 studies was conducted using the “Risk Of Bias in Non-Randomized Studies of Interventions” tool (ROBINS-I; Sterne et al. 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Sterne et al. 2016 source
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe three-level random-effects model estimated variance components τL2 = 0.345 and τL3 = 0.194, with an intraclass correlation of ICC = 0.241, and I2L2 = 75.91% of total variation attributable to within-cluster and I2L3 = 24.06% to between-cluster heterogeneity.
“The estimated variance components were τ L2 = 0.345 and τ L3 = 0.194, with an intraclass correlation of ICC = 0.241.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Thus, I 2 L2 = 75.91% of the total variation is attributable to within-cluster, and I 2 L3 = 24.06% to between-cluster heterogeneity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Results · plain
May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataCompared to learning apps, school learning tended to be negatively impacted by COVID-19-related school closures, and the disruption of learning was more severe in schools than in learning apps or online learning environments.
“the results point into the direction that, compared to learning apps, school learning tended to be negatively impacted by the COVID-19-related school closures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe suddenness of the switch from in-person to remote learning in spring 2020 may have made it impossible to adapt the necessary scaffolding measures adequately to a remote context, which may explain why younger students were affected more by the COVID-19-related school closures than older students in spring 2020.
“The suddenness of the switch from in-person to remote learning in spring 2020 may have made it impossible to adapt the necessary scaffolding measures adequately to a remote context, which may explain why younger students were affected more by the COVID-19-related school closures than older students in spring 2020.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationYounger students have fewer capabilities for self-regulated learning than older students do.
“younger students have fewer capabilities for self-regulated learning than older students do”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tomasik et al., 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationown dataThe negative effect of COVID-19-related school closures was primarily due to the immature measures of remote learning in spring 2020.
“the metaregression tentatively points out the possibility that the negative effect was primarily due to the immature measures of remote learning in spring 2020.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
InterpretationreasoningThe results of the meta-regression provide a tentative indication for familiarization effects in the school context, such that later lockdowns were less severe because experiences from the first lockdown could be used to design and implement more effective remote learning measures.
“The results of the meta-regression provide another tentative indication for familiarization effects in the school context.”
- Also stated in: § Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice · hedged
“This possibility is corroborated by the effect of the COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement being more severe in case of the early lockdown, compared to the lockdowns implement later.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice · hedged
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataPublication bias was assessed by testing funnel plot asymmetry with the rank-correlation and Egger's regression test, and the fail-safe N was N = 299, indicating that publication bias was unlikely.
“the fail-safe N was N = 299, indicating the presence of publication bias being unlikely.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites van Aert and Niemeyer (2021)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
The paper relies on this without support.
The typical duration of COVID-19-related school closures in spring 2020 was seven to eight weeks.
“The typical duration of the COVID-19-related school closures in spring 2020 was seven to eight weeks.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
With an international standard deviation of 100, this is an average effect of 0.15 SD, which aligns remarkably well with results from several meta-analyses.
“With an international standard deviation of 100, this would be an average effect of 0.15 SD which aligns remarkably well with results from several meta-analyses (e.g., Storey & Zhang, 2021;König & Frey, 2022;Betthäuser et al., 2023;Di Pietro, 2023).”
From School closure policies and student reading achievement: evidence across countries (2023) · cites this paper as König & Frey, 2022
The findings from the RVE analysis are broadly consistent with those from previous meta-analyses (Storey and Zhang 2021a: 0.15 SD; König and Frey 2022: 0.175 SD; Betthäuser et al. 2023: 0.14 SD).
“our findings from the RVE analysis are broadly consistent with those from previous meta-analyses. Storey and Zhang (2021a) concluded that due to Covid-19 students lost, on average, 0.15 standard deviations of learning, König and Frey (2022) found average losses of 0.175 standard deviations, and Betthäuser et al. (2023) estimated average losses at 0.14 standard deviations.”
From The impact of Covid-19 on student achievement: Evidence from a recent meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as König and Frey (2022)
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Reported variance components do not match the heterogeneity proportions
MinorIf 0.345 and 0.194 are variance components as stated, they imply approximately 64.0% within-study and 36.0% between-study heterogeneity, not 75.91% and 24.06%. The reported proportions instead approximately match the *squares* of those values, suggesting the values are standard deviations rather than variances.
“The estimated variance components were τ L2 = 0.345 and τ L3 = 0.194, with an intraclass correlation of ICC = 0.241.”
“Thus, I 2 L2 = 75.91% of the total variation is attributable to within-cluster, and I 2 L3 = 24.06% to between-cluster heterogeneity.”
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Benner, A. D., Harrington, M. K., Kealy, C., & Nwafor, C. E. (2024) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12935 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
School Closure Policies and Student Reading Achievement: Evidence Across CountriesPreprint
Kennedy, A., & Strietholt, R. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/93rgz · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Tanri, A., Benny Aprial, M., Mashud, M., et al. (2023) · Retos · doi:10.47197/retos.v50.100587 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Assessing the role of children in the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium using perturbation analysis
Angeli, L., Caetano, C., Franco, N., Coletti, P., Faes, C., Molenberghs, G., Beutels, P., Abrams, S., Willem, L., & Hens, N. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-57087-z · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Bansal, S., Garg, N., & Singh, J. (2023) · Library Hi Tech · doi:10.1108/lht-06-2023-0265 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
COVID-19 Pandemic and Student Reading Achievement – Findings from a School Panel StudyPreprint
Ludewig, U., Kleinkorres, R., Schaufelberger, R., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hrzae · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationCovid-induced school closures in the United States and Germany: long-term distributional effects
Fuchs‐Schündeln, N. (2022) · Economic Policy · doi:10.1093/epolic/eiac052 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Kart, A., Ophoff, J. G., & Pham-Xuan, R. (2022) · Language, Culture and Curriculum · doi:10.1080/07908318.2022.2138426 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Not only did COVID-19-related school closures affect student learning (in particular in the case of younger students, cf. König & Frey, 2022) in general, but increased inequalities exacerbated an already existing educational crisis, particularly for disadvantaged populations who were already…”
BackgroundEducational efficiency across Spanish regions: a comparative analysis over time
Ferrera, J. M. C., Sicilia, G., & Simancas, R. (2024) · International Transactions in Operational Research · doi:10.1111/itor.13567 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Shaul, S., Lipka, O., Tal, D., Bufman, A., & Dotan, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1289145 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
A meta-analysis of students’ academic learning losses over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic
Wisenöcker, A. S., Helm, C., Große, C. S., Hübner, N., & Zitzmann, S. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102111 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Evaluating education disruption by integrated school and road infrastructure system analysis
D'Ayala, D. F., Fernández, R., Vatteri, A. P., Li, Z., Bendito, A., & Yasukawa, S. (2025) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105588 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Educational interruption has devastating impacts on students and development in countries, as recently highlighted by the vast literature referring to the COVID-19 related school shut down period [113 – 115].”
Education data needs and challenges for building back from COVID-19
Recch, F., Petherick, A., Hinton, R., Nagesh, R., Furst, R., & Goldszmidt, R. B. (2023) · Epidemics · doi:10.1016/j.epidem.2023.100673 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Trotta, E., Serio, G., Monacis, L., Carlucci, L., Marinelli, C. V., Petito, A., Celia, G., Bonvino, A., Calvio, A., Stallone, R., et al. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0303991 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Vogel, S. N. T., Stang‐Rabrig, J., & McElvany, N. (2023) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-023-09801-2 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“These findings are also in line with results of first literature reviews (e.g., Hammerstein et al., 2021 ) and meta-analysis (König & Frey, 2022) on an international scale, although some of the studies included might be subject to systematic bias and should thus be interpreted carefully.”
ResultGrommé, E. S., Nonte, S., & Reintjes, C. (2023) · Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung · doi:10.1007/s35834-023-00390-w · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Weiher, G. M., Varol, Y. Z., & Horz, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1143773 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Predictors of the Effectiveness of Different Approaches to Pandemic Distance Learning
Kohout, J., Brabcova, D. B., Frank, J., Lukavský, J., Masopust, P., Motlíková, I., Rohlíková, L., Slavík, J., Stacke, V., Vejvodová, J., et al. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12090605 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Covid-19 and literacy: an introduction to the special issue
Georgiou, G. K., & Parrila, R. (2022) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-022-10393-0 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Overall, the results of the studies included in this special issue indicate that Covid19 has impacted children’s reading performance, particularly in early grades (see also Betthäuser et al., 2022; König & Frey, 2022, for evidence from recent meta-analytic studies).”
ResultLudewig, U., Strietholt, R., & McElvany, N. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102150 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Lindström, M. (2026) · Educational Assessment Evaluation and Accountability · doi:10.1007/s11092-025-09476-7 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Orbach, L., Fritz, A., Haase, V. G., Dowker, A., & Räsänen, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1083074 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“, 2022) and educational consequences (König and Frey, 2022) of the suspension of face-to-face teaching, every effort should be made in the future, even in exceptional circumstances, to provide all children with equal educational opportunities in terms of human rights (UN General Assembly, 1948).”
BackgroundTeaching writing during the COVID-19 pandemic in the 2021–2022 school year
Graham, S., Huebner, A. R., Skar, G. B. U., Azani, J., & Weinberg, P. (2023) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-023-10457-9 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Likewise, König and Frey (2022) indicated a drop of − 0.18 standard deviation across a variety of academic outcomes (mostly mathematics and reading) when examining the effects of remote instruction implemented during the Spring of 2020 and about a year later.”
InfluentialVogelbacher, M., & Schneider, T. (2024) · Advances in Life Course Research · doi:10.1016/j.alcr.2024.100609 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The impact of COVID-19 school disruptions on children’s learning
Blackwell, C. K., Mansolf, M. A., Deoni, S., Ganiban, J. M., Leve, L. D., Margolis, A. E., McGrath, M., Nozadi, S. S., O’Shea, T. M., Sherlock, P., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1295910 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Mounting evidence suggests some children are more vulnerable to the effects of the pandemic (e.g., Hammerstein et al., 2021; Cohodes et al., 2022; König and Frey, 2022; Betthäuser et al., 2023), and larger studies with individual-level data like this one are necessary to examine differences.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialde Bruijn, A. G. M., Ehren, M., Meeter, M., & Kortekaas-Rijlaarsdam, A. F. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1514895 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Rothenberg, W. A., Skinner, A. T., Lansford, J. E., Bacchini, D., Bornstein, M. H., Chang, L., Deater-Deckard, K. D., Giunta, L. D., Dodge, K. A., Gurdal, S., et al. (2024) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579423001621 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Second, studies almost exclusively investigate how single risk factors impact how disruptive the COVID-19 pandemic has been to adolescents. so we do not know which constellation of risk factors might emerge as especially important to predicting COVID-19 disruption.”
Assessing Inequality in the School Closure Response to COVID-19Preprint
Cai, X., Fu, J., Lu, Y., Tang, X., & Zhong, S. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3632103 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Stern, M. J., Powell, R. B., Frensley, B. T., Anderson, K. C., Kiewra, L. A., Pownall, M., Schmitt, T., & Thorpe, E. G. (2025) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2025.2502575 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“To address these comprehension challenges, which were likely attributable to changes in education during Covid-19 pandemic (Fisher et al. 2022; König and Frey 2022; Kuhfeld, Lewis, and Peltier 2023), we shortened the survey and administered it orally.”
Differential impact of COVID-19 school closures on immigrant students: A transnational comparison
Finch, H., Finch, M. E. H., & Avery, B. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.1045313 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Mizza, D., Reese, M., & Malouche, D. (2025) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-025-00412-2 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“These concerns have been amplified by post-pandemic educational realities, as students experienced varied educational disruption during COVID-19, creating additional variability in learning pre-paredness (König & Frey, 2022).”
Technology, time and families: Teacher experiences teaching literacy during remote instruction
Keane, K., Silverman, R. D., & Deutscher, R. (2024) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2024.104601 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
PIRLS 2021 and PISA 2022 Statistics Show How Serious the Pandemic Losses Are
Crato, N., & Patrinos, H. A. (2024) · Evaluating education: Normative systems and institutional practices · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-69284-0_1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Did Home-Based Exams during COVID-19 Affect Student Ranking? A Case from a Business School
Opstad, L., & Pettersen, I. (2022) · Educational Process International Journal · doi:10.22521/edupij.2022.112.5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Due to the coronavirus pandemic, universities worldwide had to implement a rapid change from face-to-face teaching to digital instruction (Guo, 2021; Karakose, 2021; König & Frey, 2022).”
BackgroundMacGregor, S., Cooper, A., & Holden, M. (2023) · School Leadership and Management · doi:10.1080/13632434.2023.2232819 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“While imperfect, these learning alternatives re fl ect common approaches to ERT that recognise students ’ access to technology may be limited and uneven across socioeconomic groups (König and Frey 2022).”
BackgroundCatching up after COVID-19: do school programs for remediating pandemic-related learning loss work?
de Bruijn, A. D., & Meeter, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1298171 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Postlbauer, A., Helm, C., & Große, C. S. (2022) · Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung · doi:10.1007/s35834-022-00356-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“School closures and distance learning caused severe negative effects on student achievement (for overviews, see Helm et al. 2021b; König and Frey 2022; Zierer 2021).”
BackgroundZaballa, I., Merino, M., & Villarroel, J. D. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9060862 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Thus, a meta-analysis of papers that address the issue of the impact of the pandemic on academic performance concludes, first, that school closures due to the COVID19 pandemic had an important negative average effect on the academic achievement of students in compulsory education and, second, that the younger the stud…”
BackgroundAssessing inequality in the school closure response to COVID-19
Cai, X., Fu, J., Lu, Y., & Tang, X. (2023) · China Economic Review · doi:10.1016/j.chieco.2023.102008 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Reading Comprehension and the COVID ‐19 Pandemic: What Happened and What Can We Do About It?
Almasi, J. F., & Yuan, D. (2023) · The Reading Teacher · doi:10.1002/trtr.2254 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Das abwesende Klassenzimmer: Zur Transformation der Unterrichtsinteraktion in der Digitalität
Asbrand, B., Kanz, K., & Hentschke, L. (2024) · ZISU – Zeitschrift für interpretative Schul- und Unterrichtsforschung · doi:10.3224/zisu.v13i1.06 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Barba, C. F. O., Ramírez-Pérez, H. X., & Andrade, S. M.-P. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1356730 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Nivelando por baixo: Pandemia e queda de aprendizado no ensino fundamental
Senkevics, A. S., & Alcântara, V. G. (2024) · Estudos em Avaliação Educacional · doi:10.18222/eae.v35.10525 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The growth trajectories of oral and silent word reading fluency before and after COVID-19
Georgiou, G. K., Inoue, T., McMann, M., McKenzie, S., & Parrila, R. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102105 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Schulschließungen als ethische Herausforderung
Heuling, D. S., & Helm, C. (2022) · Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung · doi:10.1007/s35834-022-00364-4 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Intelligence Differences across Years: A Trend Analysis
Sezerel, B. B., ATEŞGÖZ, N. N., & Kirişçi, N. (2023) · Kuramsal Eğitimbilim · doi:10.30831/akukeg.1099061 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Becerra-Klix, R., & Zambrano, M. C. (2023) · LACCEI International Multi-Conference for Engineering, Education and Technology (LACCEI) · doi:10.18687/laccei2023.1.1.1571 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Pattnaik, J., & Nath, N. (2023) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-023-01602-8 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Likewise, two systematic reviews examining students' learning more broadly found that remote instruction hurt students’ learning (König & Frey, 2022).”
Spitzer, M., Moeller, K., & Musslick, S. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2j7r6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Increased Performance in Tutoring Systems During COVID-19 in UruguayPreprint
Spitzer, M., Bardach, L., Kopatz, M., & Moeller, K. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/cevux · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Learning Crisis: Three Years After COVID-19Preprint
Gajderowicz, T. J., Jakubowski, M., Kennedy, A., Kjeldsen, C. C., Patrinos, H. A., & Strietholt, R. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5059328 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Closing Research-Practice Gaps in the Delivery of Online Teaching and Learning
MacGregor, S., & Pigeon, J. (2023) · Cultural and Pedagogical Inquiry · doi:10.18733/cpi29709 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Learning disruptions and academic outcomes
Banerjee, R., & Bharati, T. (2025) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2025.102650 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Vaknin‐Nusbaum, V., & Nevo, E. (2025) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-025-10518-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The lack of prior experience with structured online learning among kindergarteners further complicates engagement, requiring careful instructional design to sustain participation and minimize cognitive overload (König & Frey, 2022).”
Orbach, L., Silva, E. D. O., & de Salles, J. F. (2025) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.70106 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Muñez, D. Z., Orrantia, J., Sanchez, R., et al. (2026) · Psicologí a Educativa · doi:10.5093/psed2026a1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Zusammenhänge zwischen sozialer Herkunft, Unterrichtsform und Learning Outcomes während der Pandemie
Obermeier, R., Lenz, S., & Helm, C. (2022) · Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung · doi:10.1007/s35834-022-00355-5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lariosa, B. J., & Quezada, R. J. (2023) · American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Innovation · doi:10.54536/ajmri.v2i1.1187 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Tsesmeli, S. Ν., & Skarmoutsou, I. (2023) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2023.104563 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Aufholen in und nach Krisenzeiten
Ophoff, J. G., Helm, C., Bremm, N., & Reintjes, C. (2023) · Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung · doi:10.1007/s35834-023-00398-2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Kristianto, H., Gandajaya, L., Simanjorang, L. W., et al. (2023) · JURNAL PENDIDIKAN SAINS (JPS) · doi:10.26714/jps.11.2.2023.9-14 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Several recent research papers have reported the negative impacts of school and university lockdowns on students' achievement and ability (Betthäuser, Bach-Mortensen, & Engzell, 2023; König & Frey, 2022).”
BackgroundChallenges Faced by People with Learning Difficulties Two Years after the COVID-19 Outbreak
Rastgar-Farajzadeh, L., Kucian, K., Kalan, A. E., & Esfangareh, N. B. (2024) · Lernen und Lernstörungen · doi:10.1024/2235-0977/a000460 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Schulz, W., Ainley, J., Fraillon, J., et al. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-65603-3_3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Predictors of Post-18 Educational Aspirations and Expectations for the COVID-19 Generation
Hartas, D., Jones, C. L., & Palikara, O. (2025) · European Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12973/eu-jer.14.4.1199 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hernández, M. F. D. R., Susperreguy, M. I., Salinas, V., et al. (2022) · Calidad en la educación · doi:10.31619/caledu.n57.1252 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…los efectos de la pandemia en el aprendizaje de los niños, con datos de varios países, dio cuenta de que los más afectados en su aprendizaje fueron los niños de menor edad, en comparación con los mayores o, más concretamente, los de primaria versus los de educación secundaria (Kônig & Frey, 2022).”
BackgroundSchnepf, S. V., & Granato, S. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4608787 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Civics Education during a Lockdown: COVID-19 Containment Policies and Grade 8 Student Civic OutcomesPreprint
Kennedy, A., Mejía-Rodríguez, A. M., & Strietholt, R. (2024) · doi:10.35542/osf.io/ac5xn · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The impact of lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic on fertility intentionsPreprint
Mooi‐Reci, I., Trinh, T., Vera‐Toscano, E., et al. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4104037
Orbach, L., Fritz, A., Haase, V. G., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/jm7tw
Sun, X., Marks, R. A., Zhang, K., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/bu63s
Statistical Analysis of Covid Impact on Education in North America
Hu, Y. (2022) · Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research/Advances in social science, education and humanities research · doi:10.2991/978-2-494069-31-2_361
Brändle, T., & Pohlmann, B. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/h3e4b
Kompensation von pandemiebedingten Lernlücken: Welche Rolle sollte die Diagnostik spielen?
Förster, N., Weber, C., Forthmann, B., Helm, C., & Kemethofer, D. (2023) · Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung · doi:10.1007/s35834-023-00395-5
Rimal, Y. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4524927
Finch, W. H., Finch, M. E. H., & Avery, B. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Development · doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102900
Ay, İ. (2023) · Shanlax International Journal of Education · doi:10.34293/education.v11is1-oct.6652
“König and Frey (2022), on the other hand, found negative effects on the achievement of primary and secondary school students, but reported that this effect decreased towards the end of the pandemic.”
BackgroundKozina, A. (2023) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2023.2269858
“The closure of schools, in addition to its impact on academic achievement (e.g., König & Frey, 2022), removed one of the most important contexts for social and emotional development in adolescence (Schaffer, 2009), and in doing so presented a risk factor for the development of mental health…”
BackgroundBecerra-Klix, R., & Carrasco, M. (2023) · World Engineering Education Forum - Global Engineering Deans Council (WEEF-GEDC) · doi:10.1109/weef-gedc59520.2023.10344039
“The ramifications of the global COVID-19 pandemic on the sphere of global education have given rise to a significant diminution in student academic accomplishments, particularly evident in domains such as mathematics and reading comprehension, as attested by Konig [2], [3].”
BackgroundBreaking Barriers: How the Pandemic Bridged the Academic Achievement Gap in Rural and Urban Schools
Kersha, Y. D., Nedosyp, O. V., & Piotukh, E. I. (2023) · Psychological Science and Education · doi:10.17759/pse.2023280509
Instituto Politécnico Nacional Escuela Superior de Cómputo, M. C., Ledesma, E. F. R., Báez, L. C., Instituto Politécnico Nacional Escuela Superior de Cómputo, M. C., Gutiérrez-García, J. J., & Instituto Politécnico Nacional Escuela Superior de Cómputo, M. C. (2023) · International Journal of ADVANCED AND APPLIED SCIENCES · doi:10.21833/ijaas.2023.12.020
Thriving Through Autonomy: High-Ability Adolescents' Well-Being Amidst the PandemicPreprint
Palíšek, P., Jabůrek, M., & Portešová, Š. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/z8kpf
Angeli, L., Caetano, C., Franco, N., et al. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4324206/v1
Shukri, F. A. A., Hamdan, H., Rahin, N. F., & Aziz, N. S. A. (2024) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2024.155042
Thriving Through Autonomy: High-Ability Adolescents’ Well-Being Amidst the Pandemic
Palíšek, P., Jabůrek, M., & Portešová, Š. (2024) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/02724316241249485
“Especially young children also exhibited setbacks in fundamental skills such as writing (e.g., K¨onig & Frey, 2022; Lichand et al., 2022; Skar et al., 2023; but see Hallin et al., 2022, who did not observe this effect).”
Measuring the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Learning Loss: Evidence from Ho Municipality, Ghana
Letsu, R., Bigool, M., & Tchouchu, E. (2024) · Coronaviruses · doi:10.2174/0126667975312802240916044305
- Authors
- König, C., & Frey, A.
- Affiliations
- Goethe University Frankfurt (DE)
- Corresponding author
- König, Christoph
- Venue
- Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2022-02-03
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 16-22
- ISSN
- 0731-1745 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-3992
- OpenAlex
- W4210705702
- Semantic Scholar
- 90cb4146f7a4aa9eb3d25a1b8352f46f6bbb97b0
- Cited by
- 125
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 58.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Educational Measurement Issues and Practice (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Publication Server of Goethe University Frankfurt am Main (Goethe University Frankfurt) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › COVID-19 Pandemic Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, school closures, academic performance, distance education, lockdown, grade level effects, education during pandemic
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