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Cited by 568Education during COVID-19 pandemicCOVID-19 Pandemic ImpactsPoverty, Education, and Child Welfare

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the evidence on learning during the COVID-19 pandemic

Open access
Betthäuser, Bastian A., Bach-Mortensen, Anders M., Engzell, Per·2023·Nature Human Behaviour
DOI 10.1038/s41562-022-01506-4

Published version of a preprint

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Abstract

To what extent has the learning progress of school-aged children slowed down during the COVID-19 pandemic? A growing number of studies address this question, but findings vary depending on context. Here we conduct a pre-registered systematic review, quality appraisal and meta-analysis of 42 studies across 15 countries to assess the magnitude of learning deficits during the pandemic. We find a substantial overall learning deficit (Cohen's d = -0.14, 95% confidence interval -0.17 to -0.10), which arose early in the pandemic and persists over time. Learning deficits are particularly large among children from low socio-economic backgrounds. They are also larger in maths than in reading and in middle-income countries relative to high-income countries. There is a lack of evidence on learning progress during the pandemic in low-income countries. Future research should address this evidence gap and avoid the common risks of bias that we identify.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/s41562-022-01506-4

Cites

68 of 68 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

12 of 30 cited sources checked · 8 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Under normal circumstances, students improve their performance by around 0.4 standard deviations per school year.

    “Under normal circumstances, students generally improve their performance by around 0.4 standard deviations per school year [10][11][12] .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [10] Azevedo, J. P., Hasan, A., Goldemberg, D., Iqbal, S. A. & Geven, K. Simulating the Potential Impacts of COVID-19 School Closures on Schooling and Learning Outcomes: A Set of Global Estimates (World Bank, 2020). source

      The Empirical methodology (p. 15) assumes gains of 0.2–0.5 standard deviations per grade, and Annex A.1 (p. 44) uses 40 PISA points—about 0.4 standard deviations—as a baseline for upper-middle-income countries. The paper does not present 0.4 as a general annual gain for all students; it says gains vary by country income and cautions that differences between grades cannot automatically be equated with students’ progress over a school year. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [11] Bloom, H. S., Hill, C. J., Black, A. R. & Lipsey, M. W. Performance trajectories and performance gaps as achievement effect-size benchmarks for educational interventions. J. Res. Educ. Effectiveness 1, 289–328 (2008). source
    • cites [12] Hill, C. J., Bloom, H. S., Black, A. R. & Lipsey, M. W. Empirical benchmarks for interpreting effect sizes in research. Child Dev. Perspect. 2, 172–177 (2008). source
  • Findingown data

    The three largest estimates of learning deficits in the sample were from middle-income countries.

    “In fact, the three largest estimates of learning deficits in our sample are from middle-income countries (Fig. 3) [36][37][38] .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [36] Ardington, C., Wills, G. & Kotze, J. COVID-19 learning losses: early grade reading in South Africa. Int. J. Educ. Dev. 86, 102480 (2021). source
    • cites [37] Hevia, F. J., Vergara-Lope, S., Velásquez-Durán, A. & Calderón, D. Estimation of the fundamental learning loss and learning poverty related to COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico. Int. J. Educ. Dev. 88, 102515 (2022). source
    • cites [38] Lichand, G., Doria, C. A., Leal-Neto, O. & Fernandes, J. P. C. The impacts of remote learning in secondary education during the pandemic in Brazil. Nat. Hum. Behav. 6, 1079–1086 (2022). source
  • Premisecitation

    Existing research on summer vacations, the Ebola outbreak, and the 2005 earthquake shows that suspension of face-to-face teaching can increase educational inequality between children from different socio-economic backgrounds.

    “Existing research on the development of learning gaps during summer vacations 17,18 , disruptions to schooling during the Ebola outbreak in Sierra Leone and Guinea 19 , and the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan 20 shows that the suspension of face-to-face teaching can increase educational inequality between children from different socio-economic backgrounds.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [17] Cooper, H., Nye, B., Charlton, K., Lindsay, J. & Greathouse, S. The effects of summer vacation on achievement test scores: a narrative and meta-analytic review. Rev. Educ. Res. 66, 227–268 (1996). source
    • cites [18] Allington, R. L. et al. Addressing summer reading setback among economically disadvantaged elementary students. Read. Psychol. 31, 411–427 (2010). source
    • cites [19] Smith, W. C. Consequences of school closure on access to education: lessons from the 2013–2016 Ebola pandemic. Int. Rev. Educ. 67, 53–78 (2021). source
  • Premisecitation

    Available research on summer learning deficits, student absenteeism, and extreme weather events suggests that learning progress in mathematics is more dependent on formal instruction than in reading.

    “Available research on summer learning deficits 17,25 , student absenteeism 26,27 and extreme weather events 28 suggests that learning progress in mathematics is more dependent on formal instruction than in reading.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [17] Cooper, H., Nye, B., Charlton, K., Lindsay, J. & Greathouse, S. The effects of summer vacation on achievement test scores: a narrative and meta-analytic review. Rev. Educ. Res. 66, 227–268 (1996). source
    • cites [25] Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R. & Olson, L. S. Schools, achievement, and inequality: a seasonal perspective. Educ. Eval. Policy Anal. 23, 171–191 (2001). source
    • cites [26] Aucejo, E. M. & Romano, T. F. Assessing the effect of school days and absences on test score performance. Econ. Educ. Rev. 55, 70–87 (2016). source
  • Premisecitation

    Low- and middle-income countries were already struggling with a learning crisis before the pandemic.

    “Low-and middle-income countries were already struggling with a learning crisis before the pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [30] Angrist, N., Djankov, S., Goldberg, P. K. & Patrinos, H. A. Measuring human capital using global learning data. Nature 592, 403–408 (2021). source
    • cites [31] Torche, F. in Social Mobility in Developing Countries: Concepts, Methods, and Determinants (eds Iversen, V., Krishna, A. & Sen, K.) 139–171 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2021). source
    • cites [32] World Development Report 2018: Learning to Realize Education’s Promise (World Bank, 2018).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 18
  • May combine two claims. 18

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Studies rated at critical risk of bias (n = 19) were excluded from all analyses and figures except Fig. 2a.

    “we excluded studies rated to be at critical risk of bias (n = 19) from all of our analyses and figures, except for Fig. 2a”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Sterne, J. A. et al. ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. BMJ https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i4919 (2016). source

      The Discussion (page unavailable in our copy) recommends excluding studies at critical risk of bias from meta-analyses. It does not report that the citing authors excluded 19 studies from all analyses and figures except Fig. 2a; those details describe the citing authors’ own review. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Existing research on teacher strikes, shortened school years, and disruptions during World War II suggests that learning deficits are difficult to compensate and tend to persist in the long run.

    “existing research on teacher strikes in Belgium 13 and Argentina 14 , shortened school years in Germany 15 and disruptions to education during World War II 16 suggests that learning deficits are difficult to compensate and tend to persist in the long run.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [13] Belot, M. & Webbink, D. Do teacher strikes harm educational attainment of students? Labour 24, 391–406 (2010). source
    • cites [14] Jaume, D. & Willén, A. The long-run effects of teacher strikes: evidence from Argentina. J. Labor Econ. 37, 1097–1139 (2019). source
    • cites [15] Cygan-Rehm, K. Are there no wage returns to compulsory schooling in Germany? A reassessment. J. Appl. Econ. 37, 218–223 (2022). source

      The Introduction (p. 4) identifies shortened school years in Germany, and the Results (p. 9) report negative effects on wages and schooling duration. Those findings support a lasting adverse outcome, but the paper does not establish that learning deficits persisted or were difficult to compensate. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study used an adapted version of the ROBINS-I tool to assess risk of bias.

    “We assessed the quality of the evidence using an adapted version of the Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies of Interventions (ROBINS-I) tool 9 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Sterne, J. A. et al. ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. BMJ https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i4919 (2016). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Some studies reported higher missing data post-pandemic, generally without adjustment, and several did not report any information on missing data.

    “Some studies also reported a higher amount of missing data post-pandemic, again generally without adjustment, and several studies did not report any information on missing data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The learning deficit arose early in the pandemic and persisted over time without closing or substantially widening.

    “which arose early in the pandemic and persists over time.”
    • Also stated in: § Learning deficits arose early in the pandemic and persist · hedged
      “The figure suggests that learning deficits opened up early in the pandemic and have neither closed nor substantially widened since then.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Common sources of potential bias were confounding, sample selection, and missing data.

    “common sources of potential bias were confounding, sample selection and missing data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Several studies found evidence of selection bias, often with low socio-economic students or deprived schools under-represented after the pandemic, but this was not always adjusted for.

    “Several studies found evidence of selection bias, often with students from a low socio-economic background or schools in deprived areas being under-represented after (as compared with before) the pandemic, but this was not always adjusted for.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The evidence base over-represents high-income countries and has a dearth of studies from middle-income countries.

    “there is a strong over-representation of studies from high-income countries, a dearth of studies from middle-income countries and no studies from low-income countries.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The overall risk of bias was low for 15% of studies, moderate for 30%, serious for 25%, and critical for 30%.

    “The overall risk of bias was considered 'low' for 15% of studies, 'moderate' for 30% of studies, 'serious' for 25% of studies and 'critical' for 30% of studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The increase in educational inequality held for both maths and reading, across primary and secondary education, at each stage of the pandemic, and independently of how socio-economic background was measured.

    “This holds for both maths and reading, across primary and secondary education, at each stage of the pandemic, and independently of how socio-economic background is measured.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Most studies provide multiple estimates, so the number of estimates (n = 291) is larger than the number of included studies (n = 42).

    “Most studies provide multiple estimates of COVID-19 learning deficits, separately for maths and reading and for different school grades.The number of estimates (n = 291) is therefore larger than the number of included studies (n = 42).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    The studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis examine children aged 5 to 18.

    “The studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis examine children aged between 5 and 18.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Nineteen of the 61 studies shown in the risk-of-bias figure were rated at critical risk of bias.

    “including studies rated to be at critical risk of bias (n = 19 out of a total of n = 61 studies shown in this figure)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The formal database search identified 15 eligible studies, and citation and preprint hand searches identified 27 additional studies, totaling 42.

    “The formal database search process identified 15 eligible studies.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “The citation and preprint hand searches allowed us to identify 27 additional eligible studies, resulting in a total of 42 studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis generally did not disaggregate effect sizes by sex or gender.

    “The studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis generally did not disaggregate effect sizes by sex or gender.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    About half of the estimates (n = 149) are from the United States, 58 from the UK, 70 from other European countries, and 14 from Australia, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and South Africa.

    “About half of the estimates (n = 149) are from the United States, 58 are from the UK, a further 70 are from other European countries and the remaining 14 estimates are from Australia, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and South Africa.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The maths-reading difference was statistically significant and robust to dropping estimates from individual countries.

    “This difference is statistically significant and robust to dropping estimates from individual countries (Supplementary Fig. 9).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The systematic review and meta-analysis was pre-registered.

    “Here we conduct a pre-registered systematic review, quality appraisal and meta-analysis of 42 studies across 15 countries to assess the magnitude of learning deficits during the pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The results were replicated excluding studies deemed to be at serious risk of bias.

    “we replicate all our results excluding studies deemed to be at serious risk of bias.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The authors prospectively registered a protocol of the systematic review and meta-analysis in PROSPERO (CRD42021249944) on 19 April 2021.

    “We prospectively registered a protocol of our systematic review and meta-analysis in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (CRD42021249944) on 19 April 2021”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

    “The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Studies rated at critical risk of bias were excluded from all analyses and figures, following ROBINS-I guidance.

    “In line with ROBINS-I guidance, studies rated to be at critical risk of bias were excluded from all analyses and other figures in this article and in the Supplementary Information (including b).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Studies were included in the review and meta-analysis according to the inclusion criteria in the pre-registered protocol.

    “Studies were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis based on the inclusion criteria described in the pre-registered study protocol”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Data extraction was performed by B.A.B. and validated independently by A.M.B.-M., with discrepancies resolved through discussion and by conferring with P.E.

    “Data extraction was performed by B.A.B. and validated independently by A.M.B.-M., with discrepancies resolved through discussion and by conferring with P.E.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Schools in low- and middle-income countries have been closed for longer and have had fewer resources to facilitate remote learning.

    “Schools in low-and middle-income countries have not only been closed for longer, but have also had fewer resources to facilitate remote learning 33,34 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [33] Policy Brief: Education during COVID-19 and Beyond (United Nations, 2020).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [34] One Year into COVID-19 Education Disruption: Where Do We Stand? (UNESCO, 2021).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    All studies were double screened by the first two authors.

    “All studies were double screened by the first two authors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    All code needed to replicate the findings is available on the Open Science Framework repository.

    “All code needed to replicate our findings is available on the Open Science Framework repository (https://doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/u8gaz).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The economic resources, availability of digital learning equipment, and ability to support learning from home are likely lower in low- and middle-income countries.

    “the economic resources, availability of digital learning equipment and ability of children, parents, teachers and governments to support learning from home are likely to be lower in low-and middle-income countries 35 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Azevedo, J. P., Hasan, A., Goldemberg, D., Geven, K. & Iqbal, S. A. Simulating the potential impacts of COVID-19 school closures on schooling and learning outcomes: a set of global estimates. World Bank Res. Observer 36, 1–40 (2021).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The reported estimates, confidence intervals and significance tests for the bivariate associations come from common-effects models with standard errors clustered by study and two-sided tests.

    “The reported estimates, CIs and statistical significance tests of these bivariate associations are based on common-effects models with standard errors clustered by study, and two-sided tests.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The distribution of the data is normal.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Risk-of-bias assessments were performed by A.M.B.-M. and B.A.B. and independently checked by the other author.

    “A.M.B.-M.and B.A.B. performed the risk-of-bias assessments, which were independently checked by the respective other author.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    All titles and abstracts identified in the search were double-screened using the Rayyan online application.

    “All titles and abstracts identified in our search were double-screened using the Rayyan online application (last accessed on August 8, 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Data extraction was done by the first author and independently validated by the second author, with discrepancies resolved by discussion and consultation with the third author.

    “Data extraction was performed by the first author and validated independently by the second author, with discrepancies resolved through discussion and by conferring with the third author.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
32 of 32

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The COVID-19 pandemic caused one of the largest disruptions to learning in history.

    “The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has led to one of the largest disruptions to learning in history.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The pandemic's consequences for children's out-of-school learning environment, mental health, and physical health compound the effect of limited face-to-face instruction.

    “The effect of limited face-to-face instruction is compounded by the pandemic's consequences for children's out-of-school learning environment, as well as their mental and physical health.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The COVID-19 learning deficit will affect children's life chances through education and labour market prospects and have societal implications for growth, prosperity, and social cohesion.

    “The COVID-19 learning deficit is likely to affect children's life chances through their education and labour market prospects.At the societal level, it can have important implications for growth, prosperity and social cohesion.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The distribution of the data is normal.

    “With respect to statistical tests reported, the data distribution was assumed to be normal, but this was not formally tested.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • After a period dominated by remote and hybrid teaching models due to the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a return to in-person, group learning activities, with early indications of better academic outcomes in students at all education levels.

    “After a period dominated by remote and hybrid teaching models due to the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a return to in-person, group learning activities, with early indications of better academic outcomes in students at all education levels (23–28).”

    From Global Health Trade Summit: an AI-enhanced simulation of international trade and global health for undergraduate public health education (2025) · cites this paper as [24]

    Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 1 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Systematic reviews and meta-analyses suggest an average learning loss attributable to COVID-19 school closures of 0.17 of a standard deviation, at least one-third of a year's worth of learning.

    “Nevertheless, there are several systematic reviews and meta-analyses, and these suggest an average learning loss attributable to COVID-19 school closures of 0.17 of a standard deviation—that is, at least one-third of a year’s worth of learning16–20.”

    From COVID-19, school closures, and student learning outcomes. New global evidence from PISA (2025) · cites this paper as [16]

    The Results section (page not specified) reports an average deficit of 0.14 standard deviations, equivalent to about 35% of a school year. The claimed 0.17 is the bound of the reported confidence interval, not the average. The paper measures learning deficits during the pandemic and identifies school closures as a major contributor, but does not attribute the entire pooled deficit specifically to closures. (LLM, conf=0.90)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The COVID-19 pandemic substantially harmed the average American student's achievement.

    “The COVID-19 pandemic had substantial negative effects on the average American student's achievement (Betthäuser et al., 2023;Cohodes et al., 2022).”

    From Unequal Learning Loss: How the COVID-19 Pandemic Influenced the Academic Growth of Learners at the Tails of the Achievement Distribution (2025) · cites this paper as Betthäuser et al., 2023

    The Discussion reports a substantial average learning deficit across the countries studied. The section ‘Learning deficits arose early in the pandemic and persist’ says persistent deficits also appear in US estimates, but it does not establish that the estimated effect represents the average American student or give a US-specific magnitude described as substantial. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The activity was designed in the post-pandemic era, where residual complexities from pandemic-era education must be taken into account.

    “This activity was designed in the post-pandemic era, where residual complexities from pandemic-era education must be taken into account (24, 91).”

    From Global Health Trade Summit: an AI-enhanced simulation of international trade and global health for undergraduate public health education (2025) · cites this paper as [24]

  • The study's results are similar to what systematic reviews are finding.

    “Interestingly, our results are similar to what systematic reviews are finding learning16–20,44,45.”

    From COVID-19, school closures, and student learning outcomes. New global evidence from PISA (2025) · cites this paper as [16]

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentQ(41) = 112817.79reported p = 0 · recomputed p < .001

    “Q(41) = 112,817.79,p = .000”

  • Consistentt(41) = -7.3reported p = 0 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(41) = -7.30,p = .000”

2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • February 2022 citation-search dates disagree

    Minor

    The Results section dates the first full forward and backward citation search to 15 February 2022, whereas the Methods section dates it to 14 February 2022.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Azevedo, J. P., Hasan, A., Goldemberg, D., Geven, K. & Iqbal, S. A. Simulating the potential impacts of COVID-19 school closures on schooling and learning outcomes: a set of global estimates. World Bank Res. Observer 36, 1–40 (2021).

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Betthäuser, B. A., Bach-Mortensen, A. M., & Engzell, P.
Affiliations
  • Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris (FR)
  • Stockholm University (SE)
Corresponding author
Betthäuser, Bastian A.
ORCID
Venue
Nature Human Behaviour
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2023-01-30
Volume
7
Issue
3
Pages
375-385
ISSN
2397-3374 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/s41562-022-01506-4
OpenAlex
W4318486553
Cited by
568
References
60
Citations by year
2026: 102 · 2025: 145 · 2024: 180 · 2023: 124 · 2022: 16 · 2020: 1
FWCI
33.40
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Nature Human Behaviour (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • HAL (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • EdArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
  • SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
  • SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • EdArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders
  • Carlsbergfondet (CF19-0102)
  • Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR-11-LABX-0091, ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02, ANR-18-IDEX-0001)
  • Leverhulme Trust Large Centre Grant; Swedish Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare (FORTE)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
  • Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › COVID-19 Pandemic Impacts
  • Social Sciences › Safety Research › Poverty, Education, and Child Welfare
Keywords
COVID-19 pandemic, learning deficits, school-aged children, academic performance, socioeconomic disparities, mathematics learning, reading achievement, low-income countries, middle-income countries, high-income countries, learning loss
MeSH terms
COVID-19, Child, Humans, Income, Learning, Pandemics

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-09-30.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-09-30.

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Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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