Sustaining Community‐Based Programs for Families: Conceptualization and Measurement*
Abstract
A conceptual model for evaluating community‐based program sustainability is presented, along with a 53‐item Program Sustainability Index (PSI). Structural equation modeling (SEM) and principal axis factor analysis indicate strong support for each of the seven elements of the PSI. When considered as an overall model, six of the seven framework elements were retained. Internal consistency for each subscale was acceptable, and acceptable performance validity was demonstrated when the subscales were contrasted with middle‐range program results. These findings are discussed with regard to next steps in the conceptualization and measurement of program sustainability, as well as implications for planning and implementing community‐based programs for families.
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A comprehensive overview of CbP sustainability factors does not exist.
“Unfortunately, a comprehensive overview of the CbP sustainability factors does not exist [23,28,29].”
From Community-Based Healthcare Programs Sustainability Impact on the Sustainability of Host Organizations: A Structural Equation Modeling Analysis (2019) · cites this paper as [23]
Many approaches highlighted the importance of the ability of an initiative to garner and maintain resources through stable sources.
“Many approaches highlighted the importance of the ability of an initiative to garner and maintain resources [15, 27, 36–41] through stable sources [19, 36, 39, 42–45].”
From Navigating the sustainability landscape: a systematic review of sustainability approaches in healthcare (2018) · cites this paper as [37]
Mancini & Marek introduced the Program Sustainability Index, but more work is needed to establish its validity.
“In terms of measuring multilevel factors related to the sustainability of community-based health interventions, Mancini & Marek (80) introduced the Program Sustainability Index; although this framework is promising, more work is needed in establishing its validity.”
From The Sustainability of Evidence-Based Interventions and Practices in Public Health and Health Care (2018) · cites this paper as [80]
The Program Sustainability Index comprises five subscales with good psychometric properties, with Cronbach's alphas ranging from .76 to .88.
“It comprises 5 subscales that demonstrate good psychometric properties with Cronbach’s alphas ranging from. 76–.88.”
From The Roles of System and Organizational Leadership in System-Wide Evidence-Based Intervention Sustainment: A Mixed-Method Study (2016) · cites this paper as Mancini & Marek, 2004
The PSI is associated with ongoing planning processes, confidence in a project's long-term survival, and meeting clients' needs.
“In regard to validity, the PSI is associated with ongoing planning process, confidence in project long-term survival, and meeting the needs of clients (Mancini & Marek, 2004).”
From The Roles of System and Organizational Leadership in System-Wide Evidence-Based Intervention Sustainment: A Mixed-Method Study (2016) · cites this paper as Mancini & Marek, 2004
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The impact of intergenerational programs on children and older adults: a review
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“Since chi-square test statistics are sensitive to sample sizes and often mistakenly reject a model (Mancini & Marek, 2004; Marsh, Balla, & McDonald, 1988; Martin & Olaf, 1997; Maruyama, 1998), the ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom is more meaningful and appropriate than chi-square alone…”
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Green, A. E., Trott, E. M., Willging, C. E., Finn, N. K., Ehrhart, M. G., & Aarons, G. A. (2015) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.11.013 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“The Program Sustainability Index (PSI) was developed to assess five domains of sustainability in community programs on a 5-point scale from 0-not at all, to 4-to a very great extent, and demonstrates good psychometric properties (Mancini & Marek, 2004).”
Maintaining a Social-Emotional Intervention and Its Benefits for Institutionalized Children
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“…along the way that are deliberately aimed at facilitating the maintenance of the intervention and its transference to new contexts and practitioners (e.g. Altman, 1995; Berry, Senter, Cheadle, Greewald, & Peason, 2005, Mancini & Marek, 2004; Mittelmark, Hunt, Heath, & Schmid, 1993; Scheirer, 2005).”
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“Sustainability plans are an ethical responsibility of CE governing bodies, service delivery agencies, community organizations, and researchers (Akerlund, 2000; Mancini and Marek, 2004; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2008).”
BackgroundThe next phase in professional services research: From implementation to sustainability
Crespo-Gonzalez, C., Garcia-Cardenas, V., & Benrimoj, S. I. (2017) · Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy · doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2017.05.020 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
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BackgroundA Cross-Cultural Test of Immediacy–Learning Models in Chinese Classrooms
Zhang, Q., & OETZEL, J. G. (2006) · Communication Education · doi:10.1080/03634520600748599 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“The recommended fit standard for the CFI, GFI, and IFI is at or above .90 (Kline, 2005; Marsh et al., 1988), the recommended level of acceptability for RMR is at or less than .08, and RMSEA is at or less than .06 (Kline, 2005; Mancini & Marek, 2004).”
BackgroundSpassiani, N. A., Meisner, B. A., Chacra, M. S. A., Heller, T., & Hammel, J. M. (2019) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.12640 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Stoll, S., Janevic, M., Lara, M., Ramos-Valencia, G., Stephens, T. B., Persky, V., Uyeda, K., Ohadike, Y., & Malveaux, F. (2015) · Preventing Chronic Disease · doi:10.5888/pcd12.150133 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Zakumumpa, H., Bennett, S., & Ssengooba, F. (2017) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-017-2009-6 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Implementing Teledermatology for Rural Veterans: An Evaluation Using the RE-AIM Framework
Peracca, S. B., Jackson, G. L., Lamkin, R. P., Mohr, D. C., Zhao, M., Lachica, O., Prentice, J. C., Grenga, A. M., Gifford, A. L., Chapman, J. G., et al. (2020) · Telemedicine Journal and e-Health · doi:10.1089/tmj.2020.0013 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Hanson, H. M., & Salmoni, A. W. (2011) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2011.03.003 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Leaders, T. M. S., Mixon, A. S., the MARQUIS2 Study Group, Smith, G. R., Mallouk, M., Nieva, H. R., Kripalani, S. B., Rennke, S., Chu, E. S., Sridharan, A., et al. (2019) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-019-4491-5 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Walsh, A., Mulambia, C., Brugha, R., & Hanefeld, J. (2012) · Globalization and Health · doi:10.1186/1744-8603-8-40 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Several frameworks for assessing sustainability in Community Health Initiatives were explored as a basis for this study [24,38-40].”
Strategic factors for the sustainability of a health intervention at municipal level of Brazil
Oliveira, S. R. D. A., Medina, M. G., Figueiró, A. C., & Potvin, L. (2017) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311x00063516 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Stumbo, S. P., Ford, J. H., & Green, C. A. (2017) · Addiction Science & Clinical Practice · doi:10.1186/s13722-017-0093-x · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Conversely, staff turnover, previously identified as a barrier to implementing an intervention [35] and also as a barrier to sustainment [2, 13], was a factor related to non-sustainment in our findings.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialFlynn, R., Stevens, B., Bains, A., Kennedy, M., & Scott, S. D. (2022) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-022-02093-1 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Model (n = 17) National Health Service Sustainability Model (NHS SM) [84] Developed own model The British National Health Service Sustainability Index (SI) model [84] Stages of Change Model [99] Sustainability Pyramid Model [24] Mancini and Marek’s Model of Community-Based Program Sustainability [100] Kotter’s 8 Steps…”
BackgroundSustainability factors affecting local infrastructure project
Aksorn, P., & Charoenngam, C. (2015) · Facilities · doi:10.1108/f-01-2013-0005 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Defining Program Sustainability: Differing Views of Stakeholders
Hanson, H. M., Salmoni, A. W., & Volpe, R. (2009) · Canadian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/bf03403952 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Sustainability of the good behaviour game in Dutch primary schools
Dijkman, M. A. M., Harting, J., van Tol, L., & van der Wal, M. F. (2015) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/dav055 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Salud Para Su Corazon (Health for Your Heart) Community Health Worker Model
Balcázar, H., Alvarado, M., & Ortiz, G. A. P. (2011) · Journal of Ambulatory Care Management · doi:10.1097/jac.0b013e31822cbd0b · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“A sustainability survey was also utilized on the basis of the work by Mancini and Marek (2004) to further evaluate 7 areas from which to base the lasting effects (beyond the guidelines of the framework) of the SPSC CHW/PS at various levels of action (ie, leadership competence, strong and effective…”
MethodZaff, J. F., Donlan, A. E., Jones, E. P., & Lin, E. S. (2015) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2015.03.004 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Song, B., Sun, Q., Li, Y., & Que, C. (2016) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su8070657 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Staff involvement and integration: Include the committed, qualified staff in programme design, implementation, evaluation and decision making [15].”
BackgroundWeaver, R. H., Naar, J. J., & Jarrott, S. E. (2017) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnx194 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
A Framework for Sustainable Implementation of E-Medicine in Transitioning Countries
Isabalija, S. R., Mbarika, V., & Kituyi, G. M. (2013) · International Journal of Telemedicine and Applications · doi:10.1155/2013/615617 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“These elements are mainly within the control of program leaders and stakeholders, but a program may have limited life because of factors outside the control of the program, such as state or local budget shortfalls or the emergence of other programs and organizations [24].”
BackgroundImplementation of Teledermatology: Theory and Practice
Peracca, S. B., Jackson, G. L., Weinstock, M. A., & Oh, D. H. (2019) · Current Dermatology Reports · doi:10.1007/s13671-019-0252-2 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Padek, M. M., Mazzucca, S., Allen, P. M., Weno, E. R., Tsai, E., Luke, D. A., & Brownson, R. C. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-10101-z · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Jarrott, S. E., Morris, M. M., Burnett, A. J., Stauffer, D., Stremmel, A. S., & Gigliotti, C. M. (2011) · Journal of Intergenerational Relationships · doi:10.1080/15350770.2011.619925 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Alternately, communities that focus on broad-based community objectives and specific programmatic goals enhance program sustainability and more effectively meet clients' needs ( Mancini, Bowen, & Martin, 2005 ; Mancini & Marek, 2004 ).”
BackgroundAhmad, M. S., & Talib, N. B. A. (2014) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-014-0014-y · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The RETHINK Parenting and Anger Management Program: A Follow‐Up Validation Study*
Fetsch, R. J., Yang, R. K., & Pettit, M. J. (2008) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2008.00521.x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Stolldorf, D. P., Fortune-Britt, A. G., Nieuwsma, J. A., Gierisch, J. M., Datta, S., Angel, C. T., Millspaugh, D., & Jackson, G. L. (2018) · Journal of Military Veteran and Family Health · doi:10.3138/jmvfh.2017-0007 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Dougherty, K. J., & Natow, R. S. (2010) · doi:10.7916/d8fr04qq · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“( Mancini & Marek, 2004; Racine, 2006; Savaya et al., 2008; Scheirer, 2005; Shediac-Rizkallah”
BackgroundInfluentialApsler, R., Formica, S. W., Stout, E. R., & Carr, C. M. (2017) · The Journal of Primary Prevention · doi:10.1007/s10935-017-0489-0 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Mancini et al. (2009) referred to the necessity of adequate funding, while Mancini and Marek (2004) described strategic funding as essential to sustainability.”
BackgroundOkere, N. E., Urlings, L., Naniche, D., de Wit, T. F. R., Gomez, G. B., & Hermans, S. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-033156 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Building on Living Traditions: Early Childhood Education and Culture in Solomon Islands
Burton, L. J. (2012) · Current Issues in Comparative Education · doi:10.52214/cice.v15i1.11471 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Dorsey, C. N., Mettert, K. D., Puspitasari, A. J., Damschroder, L. J., & Lewis, C. C. (2021) · Implementation Research and Practice · doi:10.1177/26334895211002474 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Aalsma, M. C., Aarons, G. A., Adams, Z. W., Alton, M., Boustani, M. A., Dir, A. L., Embí, P. J., Grannis, S. J., Hulvershorn, L. A., Huntsinger, D., et al. (2021) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108368 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript with the Effective Collaboration (EC) subscale (12-items) from the Program Sustainability Index (Mancini & Marek, 2004).”
MethodFactors for Sustainability of Evidence-Based Practice Innovations: Part I
Chambers, L. L. (2015) · Research and theory for nursing practice · doi:10.1891/1541-6577.29.2.89 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“The extant literature (Clarke & Marks-Maran, 2014; Johnston, Hays, Center, & Daley, 2004; Mancini & Marek, 2004; Scheirer, 2005; Shediac-Rizkallah & Bone, 1998) that has addressed sustainability of practice innovations has identified the following common factors: 1.”
BackgroundPrograms that Affect Intergenerational Solidarity
Jarrott, S. E. (2010) · Palgrave Macmillan US eBooks · doi:10.1057/9780230115484_7 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Stolldorf, D. P., Havens, D. S., & Jones, C. B. (2016) · Journal of Patient Safety · doi:10.1097/pts.0000000000000239 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Franco, L. M., McKay, M. M., Fazio, M. L., Gopalan, G., Cavaleri, M. A., Appel, A., Bannon, W. M., Bigley, M. F., Harrison, M. E., Salerno, A. J., et al. (2007) · Best practices in mental health · doi:10.70256/800070mdoyjk · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Done, N., Oh, D. H., Weinstock, M. A., Whited, J. D., Jackson, G. L., King, H. A., Peracca, S. B., Elwy, A. R., & Prentice, J. C. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022218 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“36 37 At this stage, we will again conduct qualitative interviews with the individuals involved in planning and implementation.”
MethodGreenfield, E. A. (2013) · Journal of Housing for the Elderly · doi:10.1080/02763893.2012.754818 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Regarding sustainability elements, previous research suggests that program, organizational, and broader community characteristics can influence sustainability processes and outcomes (Edwards et al., 2007; Goodman et al., 1998; Mancini & Marek, 2004; Shediac-Rizkallah & Bone, 1998).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLennox, L., Antonacci, G., Harris, M. J., & Reed, J. E. (2023) · Implementation Science Communications · doi:10.1186/s43058-023-00445-z · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“The link between engagement and sustainability has been supported elsewhere, with the literature demonstrating that collaboration between diverse stakeholders allows for shared understanding of problems to be established and aids in the creation of responsive and effective interventions [20, 21, 89, 90].”
BackgroundDonessouné, F. M. G., Sossa, G. O., & Kouanda, S. (2023) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-023-09320-y · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Community-based programmes are an important part of the service delivery system in health promotion, but little is known about how these programmes are sustained [13].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSocioecological Models: Strengthening Intervention Research in Tobacco Control
Kothari, A. R., Labatt, S., & Edwards, N. C. (2007) · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Aravind, G., Graham, I. D., Cameron, J. I., Ploughman, M., & Salbach, N. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences · doi:10.3389/fresc.2023.1064266 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Thus, combining the Shediac–Rizkallah and Bone (23) and the Mancini and Marek (24) models provides a structure enabling the exploration of factors governing sustainability at broader and granular levels.”
BackgroundMethodSUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION CHECKLIST
Schröter, D. C. (2010) · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Kiefer, J. J., Mancini, J. A., Morrow, B. H., Gladwin, H., & Stewart, T. A. (2008) · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationResilience and Vulnerability: The Deployment Experiences of Youth in Military Families 1
Huebner, A. J., Mancini, J. A., Wade, K. E., McElhaney, S. J., Wiles, B., Butler, J., & Ford, J. L. (2010) · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationSaskatchewan's (Canada) Regional Centre of Expertise on Education for Sustainable Development
Dahms, T. E. S., McMartin, D. W., & Petry, R. A. (2008) · International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education · doi:10.1108/14676370810905508 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“The RCE will contribute to the long-term sustainability of this community-based program by facilitating collaboration, disseminating program results, planning and leveraging strategic funding (Mancini and Marek, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodThe influencing factors of area-based infrastructure project sustainability in Thailand
Aksorn, P., & Phansri, B. (2022) · Environment Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-022-02644-5 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“1 3 Mancini and Marek (2004) presented the model to shape the sustainability pattern of community-based projects.”
BackgroundSustainability Processes among Naturally Occurring Retirement Community Supportive Service Programs
Greenfield, E. A., & Frantz, M. E. (2016) · Journal of Community Practice · doi:10.1080/10705422.2015.1126545 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“First, while recognizing that definitions vary (e.g., Mancini & Marek, 2004; Pluye, Potvin, Denis, & Pelletier, 2004), we conceptualized sustainability as the continued operation of the NORC program and its core activities, as opposed to the long-lastingness of the programs’ effects.”
BackgroundReardon, C. M., Damschroder, L. J., Widerquist, M. A. O., Arasim, M. E., Jackson, G. L., White, B. S., Cutrona, S. L., Fix, G. M., Gifford, A. L., DeLaughter, K. L., et al. (2023) · Implementation Science Communications · doi:10.1186/s43058-022-00386-z · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“For example, systematic reviews have highlighted factors influencing sustainability [12–14], and the Program Sustainability Assessment Tool (PSAT) [15] and Program Sustainability Index [16] are frequently used instruments to assess sustainability of innovations, but do not include measures for sustainment.”
Background
- Authors
- Mancini, J. A., & Marek, L. I.
- Affiliations
- Virginia Tech (US)
- Corresponding author
- Mancini, Jay A.
- Venue
- Family Relations
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2004-06-14
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 339-347
- ISSN
- 0197-6664 (ISSN-L)
- 1741-3729
- OpenAlex
- W2153878215
- Cited by
- 199
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 5.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Family Relations (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Evaluation and Performance Assessment
- Social Sciences › Education › Community and Sustainable Development
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health Policy Implementation Science
- Keywords
- program sustainability, community-based programs, family programs, conceptual model, program evaluation, scale development, performance validity, program planning
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