Why Instructional Explanations Often Do Not Work: A Framework for Understanding the Effectiveness of Instructional Explanations

Wittwer, Jörg; Renkl, Alexander

doi:10.1080/00461520701756420

Cited by 277Visual and Cognitive Learning ProcessesInnovative Teaching and Learning MethodsIntelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning

Why Instructional Explanations Often Do Not Work: A Framework for Understanding the Effectiveness of Instructional Explanations

Wittwer, Jörg, Renkl, Alexander·2008·Educational Psychologist

DOI 10.1080/00461520701756420

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Although explanations are a common means of instruction, research shows that they often do not contribute to learning. To unravel the factors giving rise to the ineffectiveness of instructional explanations, we propose a framework that brings together empirical work on instructional explanations from a variety of research fields, including classroom instruction, tutoring, cooperative learning, cognitive skill acquisition, learning from texts, computer-supported learning, and multimedia learning. In our framework, we identify the distinctive characteristics of instructional explanations, present general guidelines for designing instructional explanations, and describe factors influencing both the generation and use of instructional explanations. It is argued that future research should uncover in more detail the interrelations between the different aspects of providing and using instructional explanations and their specific effects on learning.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/00461520701756420

Cites

176 of 176 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Applying support leads to more profound student understanding as the new information is actually integrated into the students' existing knowledge schemes.
“Applying support leads to more profound student understanding as the new information is actually integrated into the students' existing knowledge schemes (Wittwer & Renkl, 2008).”
From Scaffolding Student Understanding in Small-Group Work: Students’ Uptake of Teacher Support in Subsequent Small-Group Interaction (2019) · cites this paper as Wittwer & Renkl, 2008
By applying the support provided, students are better able to continue working constructively and extend and deepen their understanding.
“By applying the support provided, students are better able to continue working constructively and extend and deepen their understanding (Wittwer et al., 2005;Wittwer & Renkl, 2008).”
From Scaffolding Student Understanding in Small-Group Work: Students’ Uptake of Teacher Support in Subsequent Small-Group Interaction (2019) · cites this paper as Wittwer & Renkl, 2008
The degree to which students take up teachers' support promotes students' learning as new information is integrated into students' existing knowledge schemes.
“The degree to which students take up teachers' support is known to promote students' learning as new information is integrated into the students' existing knowledge schemes (Webb & Farivar, 1999;Webb, Ing, Kersting, & Nemer, 2006;Wittwer & Renkl, 2008).”
From Scaffolding Student Understanding in Small-Group Work: Students’ Uptake of Teacher Support in Subsequent Small-Group Interaction (2019) · cites this paper as Wittwer & Renkl, 2008
Scaffolding takes into account students' prior knowledge and connects closely to this prior knowledge, which makes applying a teacher's support easier for students.
“Scaffolding takes into account students' prior knowledge and connects closely to this prior knowledge, which makes applying a teacher's support easier for students (Wittwer & Renkl, 2008).”
From Scaffolding Student Understanding in Small-Group Work: Students’ Uptake of Teacher Support in Subsequent Small-Group Interaction (2019) · cites this paper as Wittwer & Renkl, 2008
The degree to which support is adapted to or contingent on students' understanding is an important factor that facilitates uptake.
“The degree to which support is adapted to or contingent on students' understanding has been identified as an important factor that facilitates uptake (Wittwer, Nückles, Hübner, & Herbert, 2005;Wittwer & Renkl, 2008).”
From Scaffolding Student Understanding in Small-Group Work: Students’ Uptake of Teacher Support in Subsequent Small-Group Interaction (2019) · cites this paper as Wittwer & Renkl, 2008

Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation.
Bloch, M. E. F., Lave, J., & Wenger, É. (1994) · Man · doi:10.2307/2804509 · Cited by 39,323 · see citing works
Situated Learning
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511815355 · Cited by 33,219 · see citing works
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 · Cited by 6,887 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Under these circumstances, providing learners with explanatory information might be an optimal way to help them construct new knowledge because they have little chance to do so on their own (eg, Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ).”
Background
Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices*
Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2 · Cited by 5,248 · see citing works
Handbook of educational psychology
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-3084 · Cited by 4,850 · see citing works
The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences
(2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816833 · Cited by 4,660 · see citing works
Grounding in communication.
Clark, H. H., & Brennan, S. E. (1991) · Perspectives on socially shared cognition. · doi:10.1037/10096-006 · Cited by 4,555 · see citing works
Talking science: language, learning, and values
Lemke, J. L. (1991) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.28-5211 · Cited by 4,000 · see citing works
Cognitive Apprenticeship: Teaching the Crafts of Reading, Writing, and Mathematics
Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (2018) · Knowing, Learning, and Instruction · doi:10.4324/9781315044408-14 · Cited by 3,674 · see citing works
Acquisition of cognitive skill
Anderson, J. R. (1982) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.89.4.369 · Cited by 3,663 · see citing works
Studies in the Logic of Explanation
Hempel, C. G., & Oppenheim, P. (1948) · Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/286983 · Cited by 3,174 · see citing works
The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance
Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N. H., Feltovich, P. J., Hoffman, R. R., Michelene, T. H., Hunt, E., Prietula, M. J., Amirault, R. J., Branson, R. K., Buchanan, B. G., et al. (2006) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816796 · Cited by 3,160 · see citing works
Mathematical Problem Solving
Martino, P. D., & Signorini, G. (2019) · ICME-13 monographs · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-10472-6 · Cited by 2,698 · see citing works
Advances in Instructional Psychology
(2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315864341 · Cited by 2,538 · see citing works
Handbook of Research on Teaching
Richardson, V. (2001) · Cited by 2,436 · see citing works
Eliciting Self‐Explanations Improves Understanding
Chi, M. T. H., Leeuw, N. D., Chiu, M., & Lavancher, C. (1994) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(94)90016-7 · Cited by 2,406 · see citing works
The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning
Mayer, R. E. (2006) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.43-5643 · Cited by 2,321 · see citing works
Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems
Chi, M. (1989) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(89)90002-5 · Cited by 2,287 · see citing works
Beyond Cold Conceptual Change: The Role of Motivational Beliefs and Classroom Contextual Factors in the Process of Conceptual Change
Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., & Boyle, R. A. (1993) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543063002167 · Cited by 2,222 · see citing works
The Atomic Components of Thought
Anderson, J. R., & Lebiere, C. J. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315805696 · Cited by 2,181 · see citing works
The Nature of Expertise
(2014) · doi:10.4324/9781315799681 · Cited by 2,174 · see citing works
Adaptive hypermedia
Brusilovsky, P. (2001) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1023/a:1011143116306 · Cited by 2,057 · see citing works
Cognitive Tutors: Lessons Learned
Anderson, J. R., Corbett, A. T., Koedinger, K. R., & Pelletier, R. (1995) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0402_2 · Cited by 1,982 · see citing works
Mathematical Problem Solving
(1985) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2013-0-05012-8 · Cited by 1,964 · see citing works
The Expertise Reversal Effect
Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_4 · Cited by 1,927 · see citing works
Self‐Explanations: How Students Study and Use Examples in Learning to Solve Problems
Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1302_1 · Cited by 1,714 · see citing works
Learning to teach.
Borko, H., & Putnam, R. T. (1996) · Cited by 1,655 · see citing works
The situativity of knowing, learning, and research.
Greeno, J. G. (1998) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.53.1.5 · Cited by 1,626 · see citing works
The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
(2005) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819 · Cited by 1,595 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1996) · Cited by 1,549 · see citing works
Collaborative Learning: Cognitive and Computational Approaches
Jones, A. C. (2000) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/s0360-1315(00)00011-7 · Cited by 1,506 · see citing works
Aptitudes and Instructional Methods: A Handbook for Research on Interactions
McLeod, D. B., Cronbach, L. J., & Snow, R. E. (1978) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.2307/748778 · Cited by 1,490 · see citing works
Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathematics
Ma, L., & Ma, L. (1999) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410602589 · Cited by 1,413 · see citing works
Inquiry, modeling, and metacognition: making science accessible to all students
White, B. Y., & Frederiksen, J. R. (1998) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1601_2 · Cited by 1,394 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…umbrella called scaffolding (Lajoie, 2005; Pea, 2004)—can help learners to regulate their learning, generate inferences, or integrate new information with prior knowledge (e.g., Chi et al., 2001; Graesser, McNamara, & VanLehn, 2005; Renkl, 1997; Simons & Klein, 2007; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Background
Explanation and Understanding
Keil, F. C. (2006) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190100 · Cited by 1,350 · see citing works
The promise of multimedia learning: using the same instructional design methods across different media
Mayer, R. E. (2003) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(02)00016-6 · Cited by 1,337 · see citing works
Teaching Effectiveness Research in the Past Decade: The Role of Theory and Research Design in Disentangling Meta-Analysis Results
Seidel, T., & Shavelson, R. J. (2007) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654307310317 · Cited by 1,271 · see citing works
Historical Problem Solving: A Study of the Cognitive Processes Used in the Evaluation of Documentary and Pictorial Evidence
Wineburg, S. (1991) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.1.73 · Cited by 1,253 · see citing works
For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning.
Mayer, R. E., & Sims, V. K. (1994) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.3.389 · Cited by 1,191 · see citing works
Guiding Principles for Fostering Productive Disciplinary Engagement: Explaining an Emergent Argument in a Community of Learners Classroom
Engle, R. A., & Conant, F. R. (2002) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2004_1 · Cited by 1,165 · see citing works
Peer interaction and learning in small groups
Webb, N. M. (1989) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/0883-0355(89)90014-1 · Cited by 1,050 · see citing works
The Social and Technological Dimensions of Scaffolding and Related Theoretical Concepts for Learning, Education, and Human Activity
Pea, R. D. (2004) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1303_6 · Cited by 1,047 · see citing works
A Time For Telling
Schwartz, D. L., & Bransford, J. D. (1998) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1604_4 · Cited by 1,037 · see citing works
The misunderstood limits of folk science: An illusion of explanatory depth
Rozenblit, L., & Keil, F. (2002) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog2605_1 · Cited by 1,032 · see citing works
Professional development and reform in science education: The role of teachers' practical knowledge
DRIEL, J. H. V., Beijaard, D., & Verloop, N. (2001) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/1098-2736(200102)38:2 · Cited by 955 · see citing works
The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction
Klahr, D., & Nigam, M. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00737.x · Cited by 914 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…with learners’ cognitive activities in fruitful ways to enhance learning is in line with recent empirical findings which show that instructional support is indeed an important ingredient in constructivist learning environments (e.g., Hardy, Jonen, Möller, & Stern, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
Result
An effective metacognitive strategy: learning by doing and explaining with a computer-based Cognitive Tutor
Aleven, V., & Koedinger, K. R. (2002) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/s0364-0213(02)00061-7 · Cited by 904 · see citing works
Implications of Cognitive Load Theory for Multimedia Learning
PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Sweller, J. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.004 · Cited by 901 · see citing works
Commonsense Conceptions of Emergent Processes: Why Some Misconceptions Are Robust
Chi, M. T. H. (2005) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1402_1 · Cited by 894 · see citing works
Cognitive Perspectives on Peer Learning
O’Donnell, A. M., & King, A. (2014) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410603715 · Cited by 871 · see citing works
Educational Technology
Berge, Z. L. (1999) · Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering · doi:10.1002/047134608x.w3353 · Cited by 869 · see citing works
Learning from human tutoring
Chi, M. T. H., Siler, S. A., Jeong, H., Yamauchi, T., & Hausmann, R. G. (2001) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog2504_1 · Cited by 855 · see citing works
Group Processes in the Classroom
Berliner, D. C., & Calfee, R. C. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203053874-35 · Cited by 842 · see citing works
How we know--and sometimes misjudge--what others know: Imputing one's own knowledge to others.
Nickerson, R. S. (1999) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.737 · Cited by 841 · see citing works
Teaching Mathematics in Seven Countries: Results From the TIMSS 1999 Video Study
Hiebert, J., Gallimore, R. G., Garnier, H., Givvin, K. B., Hollingsworth, H., Jacobs, J., Chui, A. M.-Y., Wearne, D., Smith, M. S., Kersting, N. B., et al. (2003) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e610352011-003 · Cited by 765 · see citing works
Inventing to prepare for future learning: the hidden efficiency of encouraging original student production in statistics instruction
Schwartz, D. L., & Martin, T. (2004) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2202_1 · Cited by 763 · see citing works
The Teaching Gap.
Feldman, S. C. (2004) · Teaching PreK · Cited by 761 · see citing works
Computers As Cognitive Tools
(2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203052594 · Cited by 759 · see citing works
Implications of Cognitive Load Theory for Multimedia Learning
Sweller, J. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.003 · Cited by 752 · see citing works
Learning from texts: Effects of prior knowledge and text coherence
McNamara, D. S., & Kintsch, W. (1996) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/01638539609544975 · Cited by 747 · see citing works
Encyclopedia of psychology
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41sup-0588 · Cited by 742 · see citing works
Text comprehension, memory, and learning.
Kintsch, W. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.49.4.294 · Cited by 728 · see citing works
Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Clark, R. E., & de Croock, M. B. M. (2002) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504993 · Cited by 708 · see citing works
Learning from worked-out examples: A study on individual differences
RENKL, A. (1997) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/s0364-0213(99)80017-2 · Cited by 679 · see citing works
Self-citation
Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathematics
Ma, L. (2010) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203856345 · Cited by 645 · see citing works
Annual review of psychology
A.N.W (1959) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/0003-3472(59)90073-9 · Cited by 615 · see citing works
Help Seeking and Help Design in Interactive Learning Environments
Aleven, V., Stahl, E., Schworm, S., Fischer, F., & Wallace, R. (2003) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543073003277 · Cited by 609 · see citing works
Science, Curriculum, and Liberal Education: Selected Essays
Gowin, D. B., Schwab, J. J., Westbury, I., & Wilkof, N. J. (1981) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.2307/1175440 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
Epistemological Understanding as a Metacognitive Process: Thinking Aloud During Online Searching
Hofer, B. K. (2004) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3901_5 · Cited by 573 · see citing works
Explanation and Cognition
Keil, F. C., & Wilson, R. A. (2000) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/2930.001.0001 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Evidence for Cognitive Load Theory
Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. (1991) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_5 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
The Split-Attention Principle in Multimedia Learning
Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.009 · Cited by 526 · see citing works
SERT: Self-Explanation Reading Training
McNamara, D. S. (2004) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1207/s15326950dp3801_1 · Cited by 519 · see citing works
COGNITIVE SKILL ACQUISITION
VanLehn, K. A. (1996) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.513 · Cited by 519 · see citing works
Instructional Science
(2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/11251.1573-1952 · Cited by 519 · see citing works
Incorporating learner experience into the design of multimedia instruction.
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2000) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.1.126 · Cited by 501 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1997) · Cited by 486 · see citing works
Constructive activity and learning in collaborative small groups.
Webb, N. M., Troper, J. D., & Fall, R. (1995) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.87.3.406 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Learning and Instruction
National Research Council (2003) · National Academies Press eBooks · doi:10.17226/10858 · Cited by 456 · see citing works
Worked-out examples: Instructional explanations support learning by self-explanations
Renkl, A. (2002) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00030-5 · Cited by 452 · see citing works
Self-citation
Why Do Only Some Events Cause Learning During Human Tutoring?
VanLehn, K. A., Siler, S. A., Murray, C., Yamauchi, T., & Baggett, W. B. (2003) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2103_01 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
Why Minimally Guided Teaching Techniques Do Not Work: A Reply to Commentaries
SWELLER, J., KIRSCHNER, P. A., & CLARK, R. E. (2007) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701263426 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Learning strategies for making sense out of expository text: The SOI model for guiding three cognitive processes in knowledge construction
Mayer, R. E. (1996) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf01463939 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Learning in Humans and Machines : Towards an Interdisciplinary Learning Science
Spada, H., Reimann, P., & Reimann (1995) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 400 · see citing works
Promoting Transfer: Effects of Self-Explanation and Direct Instruction
Rittle‐Johnson, B. (2006) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00852.x · Cited by 397 · see citing works
The Role of Classroom Assessment in Teaching and Learning
Shepard, L. A. (2001) · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Evidence matters: randomized trials in education research
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-3545 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Collaborative Discovery in a Scientific Domain
Okada, T., & Simon, H. (1997) · Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog2102_1 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Towards process-oriented teaching for self-directed lifelong learning: a multidimensional perspective
Bolhuis, S. M. (2003) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(02)00008-7 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Models in explanations, Part 1: Horses for courses?
Gilbert, J. K., Boulter, C. J., & Rutherford, M. (1998) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/0950069980200106 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Using Kintsch's computational model to improve instructional text: Effects of repairing inference calls on recall and cognitive structures.
Britton, B. K., & Gülgöz, S. (1991) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.3.329 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Expert Blind Spot Among Preservice Teachers
Nathan, M. J., & Petrosino, A. J. (2003) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312040004905 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
How Subject-Matter Knowledge Affects Recall and Interest
Alexander, P. A., Kulikowich, J. M., & Schulze, S. K. (1994) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2307/1163312 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
The Impact of Scaffolding and Student Achievement Levels in a Problem-based Learning Environment
Glazewski, K. D., & Klein, J. D. (2006) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-006-9002-5 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Motivational techniques of expert human tutors: Lessons for the design of computer-based tutors.
Lepper, M. R., Woolverton, M., Mumme, D. L., & Gurtner, J. (1993) · Cited by 293 · see citing works
The Redundancy Principle in Multimedia Learning
Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.013 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Secondary science teachers' use of laboratory activities: Linking epistemological beliefs, goals, and practices
Kang, N., & Wallace, C. S. (2004) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20013 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Inert knowledge: Analyses and remedies
Renkl, A., Mandl, H., & Gruber, H. G. (1996) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3102_3 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Self-Explanation Principle in Multimedia Learning
Wylie, R., & Chi, M. T. H. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.021 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Helping Students Understand Challenging Topics in Science Through Ontology Training
Slotta, J. D., & Michelene, T. H. (2006) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2402_3 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Scaffolding Deep Comprehension Strategies Through Point&Query, AutoTutor, and iSTART
Graesser, A. C., McNamara, D. S., & VanLehn, K. (2005) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4004_4 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Cognitive Tutors
Koedinger, K. R., & Corbett, A. T. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816833.006 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Observing Tutorial Dialogues Collaboratively: Insights About Human Tutoring Effectiveness From Vicarious Learning
Michelene, T. H., Roy, M., & Hausmann, R. G. M. (2008) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1080/03640210701863396 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Revising Social Studies Text from a Text-Processing Perspective: Evidence of Improved Comprehensibility
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., Sinatra, G. M., & Loxterman, J. A. (1991) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.2307/747763 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Adaptive E-Learning
Shute, V. J., & Towle, B. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3802_5 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Promoting effective helping behavior in peer-directed groups
Webb, N. M., & Mastergeorge, A. (2003) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/s0883-0355(03)00074-0 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Effective and responsible teaching: the new synthesis
(1993) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.30-5719 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Effects of instructional support within constructivist learning environments for elementary school students' understanding of "floating and sinking."
Hardy, I., Jonen, A., Möller, K., & Stern, E. (2006) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.98.2.307 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Extending the Scaffolding Metaphor
Lajoie, S. P. (2005) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-005-1279-2 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Encyclopedia of psychology
Eysenck, H. J. (1985) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(85)90047-9 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Teachers' developing ideas and practices about mathematics performance assessment: Successes, stumbling blocks, and implications for professional development
Borko, H., Mayfield, V., Marion, S. F., Flexer, R. J., & Cumbo, K. (1997) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/s0742-051x(96)00024-8 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Structuring and Adjusting Content for Students: A Study of Live and Simulated Tutoring of Addition
Putnam, R. T. (1987) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312024001013 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
The Self-Explanation Principle in Multimedia Learning
Roy, M., & Chi, M. T. H. (2005) · The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.018 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Relations Between Adolescents' Text Processing and Reasoning
Wolfe, M. B. W., & Goldman, S. R. (2005) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2304_2 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Is Direct Instruction an Answer to the Right Question?
Kuhn, D. (2007) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701263376 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
An Investigation of Teachers' Beliefs of Students' Algebra Development
Nathan, M. J., & Koedinger, K. R. (2000) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1802_03 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Using Explanatory Knowledge During Collaborative Problem Solving in Science
Coleman, E. B. (1998) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.1998.9672059 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Reading about energy: The effects of text structure in science learning and conceptual change
Diakidoy, I. N., Kendeou, P., & Ioannides, C. (2003) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0361-476x(02)00039-5 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
The Effects of Readers' Misconceptions on Comprehension of Scientific Text.
Kendeou, P., & van den Broek, P. (2005) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.235 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Learning from text: Matching readers and texts by latent semantic analysis
Wolfe, M. B. W., Schreiner, M. E., Rehder, B., Laham, D., Foltz, P. W., Kintsch, W., & Landauer, T. K. (1998) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/01638539809545030 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Researching Teaching: Methodologies and Practices for Understanding Pedagogy
Loughran, J. (1999) · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Representation in Teaching: Inferences From Research of Expert and Novice Teachers
Hogan, T. M., Rabinowitz, M., & Craven, J. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3804_3 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Computer-supported example-based learning: When instructional explanations reduce self-explanations
Schworm, S., & Renkl, A. (2006) · Comput. Educ. · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2004.08.011 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Self-citation
Can Tutors Monitor Students' Understanding Accurately?
Michelene, T. H., Siler, S. A., & Jeong, H. (2004) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2203_4 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Enhancing Students' Helping Behavior during Peer-Mediated Instruction with Conceptual Mathematical Explanations
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C. L., Phillips, N. B., Karns, K., & Dutka, S. (1997) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/461863 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Explaining Explanation
Ruben, D. (2003) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203169308 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Seeing the Complexity of Standing to the Side: Instructional Dialogues
Leinhardt, G., & Steele, M. D. (2005) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2301_4 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
The atomic components of thought
Taatgen, N. (1999) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(98)01250-9 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Can learning from molar and modular worked examples be enhanced by providing instructional explanations and prompting self-explanations?
Gerjets, P., Scheiter, K., & Catrambone, R. (2006) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.02.007 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
The Effect of Instructional Explanations on Learning From Scientific Texts
Coleman, E. B., Brown, A. L., & Rivkin, I. D. (1997) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0604_1 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Effects of organizational signals on free recall of expository text.
Lorch, R. F., & Lorch, E. P. (1996) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.38 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
PREG: Elements of a Model of Question Asking
Otero, J., & Graesser, A. C. (2001) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1902_01 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
How parent explanation changes what children learn from everyday scientific thinking
Fender, J. G., & Crowley, K. (2007) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2007.02.007 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
The Development of Students' Helping Behavior and Learning in Peer-Directed Small Groups
Webb, N. M., & Mastergeorge, A. M. (2003) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2104_2 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Initial teacher trainees and their views of teaching and learning
Bramald, R., Hardman, F., & Leat, D. (1995) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/0742-051x(94)e0009-t · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Instructional Psychology: Aptitude, Adaptation, and Assessment
Snow, R. E., & Swanson, J. (1992) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.003055 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Novice and expert teachers' conceptions of learners' prior knowledge
Meyer, H. (2004) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20006 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Learning by explaining to oneself and to others.
Ploetzner, R., Dillenbourg, P., Praier, M., & Traum, D. R. (1999) · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Help seeking in academic settings: goals, groups, and contexts
(2006) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-1060 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Interactional effects of instructional quality and teacher judgement accuracy on achievement
Helmke, A., & Schräder, F.-W. (1987) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/0742-051x(87)90010-2 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Scaffolding techniques of expert human tutors.
Lepper, M. R., Drake, M. F., & O'Donnell-Johnson, T. (1997) · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Modelling Human Teaching Tactics and Strategies for Tutoring Systems: 14 Years On
du Boulay, B., & Luckin, R. (2015) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-015-0053-0 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Adaptive web‐based learning: accommodating individual differences through system's adaptation
Magoulas, G. D., Papanikolaou, K. A., & Grigoriadou, M. (2003) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/1467-8535.00347 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
QUEST: A cognitive model of question answering
Graesser, A. C., & Franklin, S. P. (1990) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/01638539009544760 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Pragmatics and Pedagogy: Conversational Rules and Politeness Strategies May Inhibit Effective Tutoring
Pearson, N. K., Kreuz, R. J., Zwaan, R. A., & Graesser, A. C. (1995) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1302_1 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Instructional design for effective and enjoyable computer-supported learning
Kirschner, P. A., & Gerjets, P. H. (2005) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.01.004 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
The impact of intrinsic cognitive load on the effectiveness of graphical help for coherence formation
Seufert, T., Jänen, I., & Brünken, R. (2007) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2006.10.002 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Teacher education reform in Europe: the case of Norway; trends and tensions in a global perspective
Garm, N., & Karlsen, G. E. (2004) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2004.07.004 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Learning for later teaching: An exploration of mediational links between teaching expectancy and learning results
Renkl, A. (1995) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/0959-4752(94)00015-h · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Self-citation
Objecting to the objections to using random assignment in educational research
Cook, T. D., & Payne, M. R. (2001) · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Verbal explanations given by science teachers: Their nature and implications
Dagher, Z. R., & Cossman, G. W. (1992) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.3660290405 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1999) · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Effects of Peer Interaction During Computer-Based Mathematics Instruction
Hooper, S. (1992) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1992.9944435 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Information About a Layperson's Knowledge Supports Experts in Giving Effective and Efficient Online Advice to Laypersons.
Nückles, M., Wittwer, J., & Renkl, A. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.11.4.219 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Self-citation
Student questioning: A componential analysis
van der Meij, H. (1994) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/1041-6080(94)90007-8 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
In search of explanatory frameworks: an analysis of Richard Feynman's lecture 'Atoms in motion'
Treagust, D. F., & Harrison, A. G. (2000) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690050166733 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Adaptive instruction: Building on diversity
Wang, M. C. (1980) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405848009542885 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Explanations of Mathematical Concepts in Japanese, Chinese, and U.S. First-and Fifth-Grade Classrooms
Perry, M. (2000) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1802_02 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
On the Constraints of Encapsulated Knowledge: Clinical Case Representations by Medical Experts and Subexperts
Rikers, R. M. J. P., Schmidt, H. G., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2002) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2001_2 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Help Seeking in Cooperative Learning Groups
Aleven, V., McLaren, B. M., & Koedinger, K. R. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203726563-10 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
What Do Reading Tutors Do? A Naturalistic Study of More and Less Experienced Tutors in Reading
Cromley, J. G. (2005) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1207/s15326950dp4002_1 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Conceptualizing instructional explanation
Duffy, G. G., Roehler, L. R., Meloth, M. S., & Vavrus, L. G. (1986) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/s0742-051x(86)80002-6 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
How do Experts Adapt their Explanations to a Layperson’s Knowledge in Asynchronous Communication? An Experimental Study
Nückles, M., Winter, A., Wittwer, J., Herbert, M., & Hübner, S. (2006) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1007/s11257-006-9000-y · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citation
An Example Order for Cognitive Skill Acquisition
Renkl, A., & Atkinson, R. K. (2007) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195178845.003.0007 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citation
Experimental research on teaching and learning
Olechowski, R., & Svik, G. (1995) · Peter Lang eBooks · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Evaluation of two types of online help for application software
Dutke, S., & Reimer, T. O. (2000) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2729.2000.00143.x · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Explanations: styles of explanation in science
(2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.42-4610 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Is underestimation less detrimental than overestimation? The impact of experts’ beliefs about a layperson’s knowledge on learning and question asking
Wittwer, J., Nückles, M., & Renkl, A. (2007) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-007-9021-x · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citation
LEARNING FROM WORKED-OUT EXAMPLES: THE TRANSITION FROM INSTRUCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS TO SELF-EXPLANATION PROMPTS
Hilbert, T. S., Schworm, S., & Renkl, A. (2004) · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citation
Giving and Receiving Explanations in Cooperative Learning Groups
Ross, J. A., & Cousins, J. B. (1995) · Alberta Journal of Educational Research · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The Influence of Prior Knowledge on the Time Course of Clinical Diagnosis Inferences: A Comparison of Experts and Novices
León, J. A., & Perez, O. (2001) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1207/s15326950dp3102_04 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Levels of comprehension of scientific prose: the role of text variables
Vidal‐Abarca, E., & López, V. S. (1998) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(97)00020-0 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Research on the model teacher and the teaching model
Weinert, F. E., Helmke, A., & Schräder, F.-W. (1992) · Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Explanations
(2004) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198607786.001.0001 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Designing and Implementing Meaningful Field-Based Experiences for Mathematics Methods Courses: A Framework and Program Description
McDuffie, A. R., Akerson, V. L., & Morrison, J. A. (2015) · THE MATHEMATICS EDUCATOR · doi:10.63301/tme.v13i1.1853 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Text Comprehension: Models in Psychology
Goldman, S. R., & Wolfe, M. B. W. (2001) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/01542-4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Working toward a stronger conceptualization of scientific explanation for science education
Braaten, M., & Windschitl, M. (2011) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20449 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
Game-Based Learning
Tobias, S., Fletcher, J. D., & Wind, A. P. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_38 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Exploring feedback and student characteristics relevant for personalizing feedback strategies
Narciss, S., Sosnovsky, S., Schnaubert, L., Andrès, E., Eichelmann, A., Goguadze, G., & Melis, E. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.09.011 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Help Helps, But Only So Much: Research on Help Seeking with Intelligent Tutoring Systems
Aleven, V., Roll, I., McLaren, B. M., & Koedinger, K. R. (2016) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-015-0089-1 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Explanation and abductive inference
Lombrozo, T. (2012) · The Oxford Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734689.013.0014 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Explanatory Preferences Shape Learning and Inference
Lombrozo, T. (2016) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2016.08.001 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
The effects of scaffolding in the classroom: support contingency and student independent working time in relation to student achievement, task effort and appreciation of support
van de Pol, J., Volman, M., Oort, F., & Beishuizen, J. (2015) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-015-9351-z · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Instructor-learner brain coupling discriminates between instructional approaches and predicts learning
Pan, Y., Dikker, S., Goldstein, P., Zhu, Y., Yang, C., & Hu, Y. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116657 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Exploring mathematics problems prepares children to learn from instruction
DeCaro, M. S., & Rittle‐Johnson, B. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.06.009 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Scaffolding Student Understanding in Small-Group Work: Students’ Uptake of Teacher Support in Subsequent Small-Group Interaction
van de Pol, J., Mercer, N., & Volman, M. (2019) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2018.1522258 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
“Scaffolding takes into account students’ prior knowledge and connects closely to this prior knowledge, which makes applying a teacher’s support easier for students (Wittwer & Renkl, 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Integrating artificial intelligence into science lessons: teachers’ experiences and views
Park, J., Teo, T. W., Teo, A., Chang, J., Huang, J., & Koo, S. (2023) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-023-00454-3 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Expertise reversal effect and its instructional implications: introduction to the special issue
Kalyuga, S., & Renkl, A. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9102-0 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Self-citation
Learning, culture and social interaction
Instruction (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · Cited by 141 · see citing works
How Effective are Instructional Explanations in Example-Based Learning? A Meta-Analytic Review
Wittwer, J., & Renkl, A. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9136-5 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Self-citation
Student Learning: What Has Instruction Got to Do With It?
Lee, H. S., & Anderson, J. R. (2012) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143833 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
From Professional Knowledge to Professional Performance: The Impact of CK and PCK on Teaching Quality in Explaining Situations.
Kulgemeyer, C., & Riese, J. (2018) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21457 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Learning by generating vs. receiving instructional explanations: Two approaches to enhance attention cueing in animations
de Koning, B. B., Tabbers, H. K., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2010) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.02.027 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Review of Research on Computer Games
Tobias, S., Fletcher, J. D., Wind, A. P., & Dai, D. Y. (2011) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-61735-410-620251009 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Impact of Expert Teaching Quality on Novice Academic Performance in the Jigsaw Cooperative Learning Method
Berger, R., & Hänze, M. (2014) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2014.985757 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Scaffolding student learning: A micro-analysis of teacher–student interaction
van de Pol, J., & Elbers, E. (2013) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2012.12.001 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Teacher Scaffolding in Small-Group Work: An Intervention Study
van de Pol, J., Volman, M. L. L., Oort, F. J., & Beishuizen, J. J. (2013) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2013.805300 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
A Framework of Effective Science Explanation Videos Informed by Criteria for Instructional Explanations
Kulgemeyer, C. (2018) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-018-9787-7 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Explaining the moral of the story
Walker, C. M., & Lombrozo, T. (2017) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2016.11.007 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Peer review in the classroom: student perceptions, peer feedback quality and the role of assessment
Gaynor, J. W. (2019) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2019.1697424 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
How much is too much? Learning and motivation effects of adding instructional explanations to worked examples
Richey, J. E., & Nokes‐Malach, T. J. (2013) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.11.006 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Managing face threats and instructions in online tutoring.
Brummernhenrich, B., & Jucks, R. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031928 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Unterricht in Zeiten von Corona: Ein Blick auf die Herausforderungen aus der Sicht von Unterrichts- und Instruktionsforschung
Voss, T., & Wittwer, J. (2020) · Unterrichtswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s42010-020-00088-2 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citation
How to Foster Active Processing of Explanations in Instructional Communication
Berthold, K., & Renkl, A. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9124-9 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citation
Towards a framework for effective instructional explanations in science teaching
Kulgemeyer, C. (2018) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2018.1598054 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
An alternative time for telling: When conceptual instruction prior to problem solving improves mathematical knowledge
Fyfe, E. R., DeCaro, M. S., & Rittle‐Johnson, B. (2014) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12035 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Math Education With Large Language Models: Peril or Promise?
Kumar, H., Rothschild, D. M., Goldstein, D. G., & Hofman, J. M. (2025) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-98459-4_5 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Professional knowledge affects action‐related skills: The development of preservice physics teachers' explaining skills during a field experience
Kulgemeyer, C., Borowski, A., Buschhüter, D., Enkrott, P., Kempin, M., Reinhold, P., Riese, J., Schecker, H., Schröder, J., & Vogelsang, C. (2020) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21632 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Applying multimodal learning analytics to examine the immediate and delayed effects of instructor scaffoldings on small groups’ collaborative programming
Ouyang, F., Dai, X., & Chen, S. (2022) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-022-00361-z · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Coordinating principles and examples through analogy and self-explanation
Nokes‐Malach, T. J., VanLehn, K. A., Belenky, D. M., Lichtenstein, M., & Cox, G. E. (2012) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-012-0164-z · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The use of an extended flipped classroom model in improving students’ learning in an undergraduate course
Guo, J. (2019) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-019-09224-z · Cited by 58 · see citing works
What motivates university students to like or dislike an educational online video? A sentimental framework
Shoufan, A. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.02.008 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Can tutors be supported in giving effective explanations?
Wittwer, J., Nückles, M., Landmann, N., & Renkl, A. (2010) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016727 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citation
Are instructional explanations more effective in the context of an impasse?
Sánchez, E., García-Rodicio, H., & Acuña, S. R. (2008) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9074-5 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Interaction-based coding of scaffolding processes
Hermkes, R., Mach, H., & Mınnameıer, G. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.09.003 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The Effects of Politeness-Related Instruction on Medical Tutoring
Bromme, R., Brummernhenrich, B., Becker, B.-M., & Jucks, R. (2012) · Communication Education · doi:10.1080/03634523.2012.691979 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“I Need to Be Explicit: You're Wrong”: Impact of Face Threats on Social Evaluations in Online Instructional Communication
Jucks, R., Päuler-Kuppinger, L., & Brummernhenrich, B. (2014) · Interacting with Computers · doi:10.1093/iwc/iwu032 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Online peer assessment improves learners’ creativity:not only learners’ roles as an assessor or assessee, but also their behavioral sequence matter
Zhang, Y., Pi, Z., Chen, L., Zhang, X., & Yang, J. (2021) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100950 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Augmenting learning environments using AI custom chatbots: Effects on learning performance, cognitive load, and affective variables
Lademann, J., Henze, J., & Becker, S. (2025) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.21.010147 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Exploring the explaining quality of physics online explanatory videos
Kulgemeyer, C., & Peters, C. H. (2016) · European Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/0143-0807/37/6/065705 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Formative computer-based feedback in the university classroom: Specific concept maps scaffold students' writing
Lachner, A., Burkhart, C., & Nückles, M. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.008 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Lernen durch Videos – Empirische Befunde zur Gestaltung von Erklärvideos
Findeisen, S., Horn, S. S., & Seifried, J. (2019) · MedienPädagogik Zeitschrift für Theorie und Praxis der Medienbildung · doi:10.21240/mpaed/00/2019.10.01.x · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Examining Teacher Talk in an Engineering Design-Based Science Curricular Unit
Aranda, M. L., Lie, R., Guzey, S. S., Makarsu, M., Johnston, A. C., & Moore, T. (2018) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-018-9697-8 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-Directed Learning for the 21st Century: Implications for Higher Education
Bergamin, P. B., Bosch, C., Toit, A. D., Goede, R., Golightly, A., Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., Kruger, C., Laubscher, D. J., Lubbe, A., et al. (2019) · NWU self-directed learning series · doi:10.4102/aosis.2019.bk134 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Tell me why! Content knowledge predicts process-orientation of math researchers’ and math teachers’ explanations
Lachner, A., & Nückles, M. (2015) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-015-9365-6 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
When being worse helps: The influence of upward social comparisons and knowledge awareness on learner engagement and learning in peer-to-peer knowledge exchange
Neugebauer, J., Ray, D. G., & Sassenberg, K. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.02.007 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Mapping and Drawing to Improve Students’ and Teachers’ Monitoring and Regulation of Students’ Learning from Text: Current Findings and Future Directions
van de Pol, J., van Loon, M. H., van Gog, T., Braumann, S., & de Bruin, A. B. H. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09560-y · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Fostering active processing of instructional explanations of learners with high and low prior knowledge
Acuña, S. R., Rodicio, H. G., & Sánchez, E. (2010) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-010-0049-y · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Mind the gap! Automated concept map feedback supports students in writing cohesive explanations.
Lachner, A., Burkhart, C., & Nückles, M. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000111 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Using scaffolding strategies to improve formative assessment practice in higher education
Kruiper, S. M. A., Leenknecht, M. J. M., & Slof, B. (2021) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2021.1927981 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
The expertise reversal effect in prompting focused processing of instructional explanations
Roelle, J., & Berthold, K. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9247-0 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Learning by writing explanations: computer-based feedback about the explanatory cohesion enhances students’ transfer
Lachner, A., & Neuburg, C. (2018) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-018-9470-4 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
U sing the J igsaw M ethod to T each A bdominal A natomy
Oakes, D. J., Hegedus, E. M., Ollerenshaw, S. L., Drury, H., & Ritchie, H. E. (2018) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1802 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Investigating the Knowledge Needed for Teaching Mathematics
Charalambous, C. (2016) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/0022487116634168 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Misconceptions in Physics Explainer Videos and the Illusion of Understanding: an Experimental Study
Kulgemeyer, C., & Wittwer, J. (2022) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-022-10265-7 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citation
Effects of Comparing Contrasting Cases on Learning From Subsequent Explanations
Roelle, J., & Berthold, K. (2015) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370008.2015.1063636 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Two instructional aids to optimise processing and learning from instructional explanations
Roelle, J., Berthold, K., & Renkl, A. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9277-2 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citation
The expertise reversal effect concerning instructional explanations
Rey, G. D., & Fischer, A. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9237-2 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Teacher Explanation of Physics Concepts: a Video Study
Geelan, D. (2012) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-012-9336-8 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
CID: a framework for the cognitive analysis of composite instructional designs
Loibl, K., Leuders, T., Glogger‐Frey, I., & Rummel, N. (2024) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-024-09665-9 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
The effect of explanations on mathematical reasoning tasks
Norqvist, M. (2017) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2017.1340679 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Students’ reasons for preferring teleological explanations
Trommler, F., Martens, H., & Hammann, M. (2017) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2017.1404658 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Elementary mathematics teachers’ judgment accuracy and calibration accuracy: Do they predict students’ mathematics achievement outcomes?
Gabriele, A. J., Joram, E., & Park, K. H. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.06.008 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Enhancing diagnostic competence with self‐explanation prompts and adaptable feedback
Heitzmann, N., Fischer, F., Kühne-Eversmann, L., & Fischer, M. R. (2015) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.12778 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Example-based learning: The benefits of prompting organization before providing examples
Roelle, J., Hiller, S., Berthold, K., & Rumann, S. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.11.012 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
EXPLORING THE EXPLANATION OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHER IN MATHEMATICS TEACHING PRACTICE
Murtafiah, W., Sa'dijah, C., Chandra, T. D., Susiswo, S., & As'ari, A. (2018) · Journal on Mathematics Education · doi:10.22342/jme.9.2.5388.259-270 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Perception Engineering Learning With Virtual Reality
Bohné, T., Heine, I., Gürerk, Ö., Rieger, C., Kemmer, L., & Cao, L. Y. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2021.3107407 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Using a Diagnosis-Based Approach to Individualize Instructional Explanations in Computer-Mediated Communication
Wittwer, J., Nückles, M., & Renkl, A. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9118-7 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citation
Motivated shortcomings in explanation: The role of comparative self-evaluation and awareness of explanation recipient's knowledge.
Ray, D. G., Neugebauer, J., Sassenberg, K., Buder, J., & Hesse, F. W. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0029339 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Help Seeking and Intelligent Tutoring Systems: Theoretical Perspectives and a Step Towards Theoretical Integration
Aleven, V. A. W. M. M. (2013) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-5546-3_21 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Learning through online peer discourse: Structural equation modeling points to the role of discourse activities in individual understanding
Paus, E., Werner, C. S., & Jucks, R. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.12.008 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Using online measures to determine how learners process instructional explanations
Sánchez, E., & García-Rodicio, H. (2013) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.12.003 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Impact of Secondary Students’ Content Knowledge on Their Communication Skills in Science
Kulgemeyer, C. (2016) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-016-9762-6 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Learning from Instructional Explanations: Effects of Prompts Based on the Active-Constructive-Interactive Framework
Roelle, J., Müller, C., Roelle, D., & Berthold, K. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124115 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Curiosity Notebook: A Platform for Learning by Teaching Conversational Agents
Law, E., Baghaei Ravari, P., Chhibber, N., Kulic, D., Lin, S., Pantasdo, K. D., Ceha, J., Suh, S., & Dillen, N. (2020) · Extended Abstracts of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3334480.3382783 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Two kinds of meaningful multimedia learning: Is cognitive activity alone as good as combined behavioral and cognitive activity?
Skuballa, I. T., Dammert, A., & Renkl, A. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.02.001 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citation
To teach or not to teach the conceptual structure of mathematics? Teachers undervalue the potential of Principle-Oriented explanations
Lachner, A., Weinhuber, M., & Nückles, M. (2019) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.03.008 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Teacher-Directed Learning Approaches and Science Achievement: Investigating the Importance of Instructional Explanations in Australian Schools
Cairns, D., & Areepattamannil, S. (2021) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-021-10002-0 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Different Words for the Same Concept: Learning Collaboratively From Multiple Documents
Jucks, R., & Paus, E. (2013) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370008.2013.769993 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Enhancing Online Problems Through Instructor-Centered Tools for Randomized Experiments
Williams, J. J., Rafferty, A. N., Tingley, D. H., Ang, A., Lasecki, W. S., & Kim, J. (2018) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3173574.3173781 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Restructuring the College Classroom: A Critical Reflection on the Use of Collaborative Strategies to Target Student Engagement in Higher Education
Griffin, C. P., & Howard, S. (2017) · Psychology Learning & Teaching · doi:10.1177/1475725717692681 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Effects of comparing contrasting cases and inventing on learning from subsequent instructional explanations
Roelle, J., & Berthold, K. (2016) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-016-9368-y · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Realising ‘dialogic intentions’ when working with a microblogging tool in secondary school classrooms
WARWICK, P. V., Cook, V., Vrikki, M., Major, L., & Rasmussen, I. (2020) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2019.100376 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The Impact of the Zone of Proximal Development Concept (Scaffolding) on the Students Problem Solving Skills and Learning Outcomes
Raslan, G. (2024) · Lecture notes in civil engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56121-4_6 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Teacher Guidance and On‐the‐Fly Scaffolding in Primary School Students' Inquiry Learning
Sasse, H., Weber, A. M., Reuter, T., & Leuchter, M. (2024) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21921 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Engineering representations guide student problem‐solving in statics
Johnson‐Glauch, N., & Herman, G. L. (2019) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20258 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Gameful Learning for a More Sustainable World
Hoffmann, G., & Pfeiffer, J. (2021) · Business & Information Systems Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12599-021-00731-x · Cited by 33 · see citing works
A Rating Framework for the Quality of Video Explanations
Ring, M., & Brahm, T. (2022) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-022-09635-5 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Towards a hypothetical learning progression of scientific explanation
Yao, J., Guo, Y., & Neumann, K. (2016) · Asia-Pacific Science Education · doi:10.1186/s41029-016-0011-7 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
What Do University Students Truly Learn When Watching Tutorial Videos in Organic Chemistry? An Exploratory Study Focusing on Mechanistic Reasoning
Eckhard, J., Rodemer, M., Bernholt, S., & Graulich, N. (2022) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.2c00076 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Who benefits from a low versus high guidance CSCL script and why?
Mende, S., Proske, A., Körndle, H., & Narciss, S. (2017) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-017-9411-7 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Training adult novices to use computers: Effects of different types of illustrations
Kehoe, E., Bednall, T., Yin, L., Olsen, K. N., Pitts, C., Henry, J., & Bailey, P. E. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.005 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Experimental Philosophy of Explanation Rising: The Case for a Plurality of Concepts of Explanation
Colombo, M. (2016) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12340 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Learning from Computer Games: A Research Review
Tobias, S., & Fletcher, D. (2012) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-33814-4_2 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The importance of teachers’ pedagogical-psychological teaching knowledge for successful teaching and learning
Hollenstein, L., & Brühwiler, C. (2024) · The Journal of Curriculum Studies · doi:10.1080/00220272.2024.2328042 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The Relationship Between Teacher-Student Rapport and EFL Learners’ Engagement in Online Scaffolding Setting
Zhang, B. (2023) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1007/s10936-023-09954-3 · Cited by 21 · see citing works

Towards Understanding Instructional Explanations.
Leinhardt, G. (1990) · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Contrasting cases effectively prepare learners for future learning from instructional explanations. In K. Berthold (Chair), When and how instructional explanations can be effective
Roelle, J., & Berthold, K. (2012) · PUB – Publications at Bielefeld University (Bielefeld University) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
How to prepare learners to learn from instructional explanations. In K. Berthold (Chair), How instructional explanations can work
Roelle, J., & Berthold, K. (2011) · PUB – Publications at Bielefeld University (Bielefeld University)
Explanatory Support for Learning
Berthold, K. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_1723 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
How to foster learning from explanations by explaining less. In J. Roelle (Chair), When to use and how to optimise instructional explanations
Roelle, J., & Berthold, K. (2013) · PUB – Publications at Bielefeld University (Bielefeld University)

Authors: Wittwer, J., & Renkl, A.
Affiliations: University of Freiburg (DE)
ORCID: Wittwer, Jörg
Renkl, Alexander
Venue: Educational Psychologist
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2008-01-28
Volume: 43
Issue: 1
Pages: 49-64
ISSN: 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
1532-6985
DOI: 10.1080/00461520701756420
OpenAlex: W2084299944
Cited by: 277
References: 176
Citations by year: 2026: 17 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 14
FWCI: 8.96
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
Funders: University of California, Santa Cruz
Université Laval
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
Keywords: instructional explanations, explanation design, learning from explanations, tutoring, cooperative learning, cognitive skill acquisition, learning from text, computer-supported learning, multimedia learning, classroom teaching

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Why Instructional Explanations Often Do Not Work: A Framework for Understanding the Effectiveness of Instructional Explanations

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks