The DOI matches its Crossref record; 22 of the 22 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Omega‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory processes: nutrition or pharmacology?
Open accessAbstract
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are n‐3 fatty acids found in oily fish and fish oil supplements. These fatty acids are able to inhibit partly a number of aspects of inflammation including leucocyte chemotaxis, adhesion molecule expression and leucocyte‐endothelial adhesive interactions, production of eicosanoids like prostaglandins and leukotrienes from the n‐6 fatty acid arachidonic acid, production of inflammatory cytokines and T cell reactivity. In parallel, EPA gives rise to eicosanoids that often have lower biological potency than those produced from arachidonioc acid and EPA and DHA give rise to anti‐inflammatory and inflammation resolving resolvins and protectins. Mechanisms underlying the anti‐inflammatory actions of n‐3 fatty acids include altered cell membrane phospholipid fatty acid composition, disruption of lipid rafts, inhibition of activation of the pro‐inflammatory transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B so reducing expression of inflammatory genes, activation of the anti‐inflammatory transcription factor NR1C3 (i.e. peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ) and binding to the G protein coupled receptor GPR120. These mechanisms are interlinked. In adult humans, an EPA plus DHA intake greater than 2 g day–1 seems to be required to elicit anti‐inflammatory actions, but few dose finding studies have been performed. Animal models demonstrate benefit from n‐3 fatty acids in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and asthma. Clinical trials of fish oil in patients with RA demonstrate benefit supported by meta‐analyses of the data. Clinical trails of fish oil in patients with IBD and asthma are inconsistent with no overall clear evidence of efficacy.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Atherosclerosis--an inflammatory disease
Ross, R. (1999) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199901143400207 · Cited by 21,725
Inflammation, Atherosclerosis, and Coronary Artery Disease
Hansson, G. K. (2005) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmra043430 · Cited by 8,773
Inflammation and insulin resistance
Shoelson, S. E. (2006) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci29069 · Cited by 4,769
European Guidelines for Obesity Management in Adults
Yumuk, V., Tsigos, C., Fried, M., Schindler, K., Busetto, L., Micic, D., & Toplak, H. (2015) · Obesity Facts · doi:10.1159/000442721 · Cited by 3,432
Resolving inflammation: dual anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution lipid mediators
Serhan, C. N., Chiang, N., & Van Dyke, T. E. (2008) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri2294 · Cited by 2,932
Oh, D. Y., Talukdar, S., Bae, E. J., Imamura, T., Morinaga, H., Fan, W., Li, P., Lu, W. J., Watkins, S. M., & Olefsky, J. M. (2010) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.07.041 · Cited by 2,428
Integrating cell-signalling pathways with NF-κB and IKK function
Perkins, N. D. (2007) · Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology · doi:10.1038/nrm2083 · Cited by 2,350
Kliewer, S. A., Sundseth, S. S., Jones, S. A., Brown, P. J., Wisely, G. B., Koble, C. S., Devchand, P., Wahli, W., Willson, T. M., Lenhard, J. M., et al. (1997) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.94.9.4318 · Cited by 2,164
Forman, B. M., Chen, J., & Evans, R. M. (1997) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.94.9.4312 · Cited by 2,116
Lee, T. H., Hoover, R. L., Williams, J. D., Sperling, R. I., Ravalese, J., Spur, B. W., Robinson, D. R., Corey, E. J., Lewis, R. A., & Austen, K. F. (1985) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm198505093121903 · Cited by 1,333
Cited by
Marine omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: effects, mechanisms and clinical relevance
Calder, P. C. (2015) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids · doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.08.010 · Cited by 1,717
Self-citationCalder, P., Carr, A., Gombart, A., & Eggersdorfer, M. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12041181 · Cited by 972
Self-citationMolecular Choreography of Acute Exercise
Contrepois, K., Wu, S., Moneghetti, K. J., Hornburg, D., Ahadi, S., Tsai, M.-S., Metwally, A. A., Wei, E., Lee-McMullen, B., Quijada, J. V., et al. (2020) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.043 · Cited by 502
Resolvins, Specialized Proresolving Lipid Mediators, and Their Potential Roles in Metabolic Diseases
Spite, M., Clària, J., & Serhan, C. N. (2014) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2013.10.006 · Cited by 464
Nutrition, immunity and COVID-19
Calder, P. C. (2020) · BMJ Nutrition, Prevention & Health · doi:10.1136/bmjnph-2020-000085 · Cited by 426
Self-citationVery long-chain n -3 fatty acids and human health: fact, fiction and the future
Calder, P. C. (2018) · Proceedings of the Nutrition Society · doi:10.1017/s0029665117003950 · Cited by 419
Self-citationn -3 Fatty acids, inflammation and immunity: new mechanisms to explain old actions
Calder, P. C. (2013) · Proceedings of the Nutrition Society · doi:10.1017/s0029665113001031 · Cited by 364
Self-citationPostmortem evidence of cerebral inflammation in schizophrenia: a systematic review
Trépanier, M. O., Hopperton, K. E., Mizrahi, R., Mechawar, N., & Bazinet, R. P. (2016) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2016.90 · Cited by 360
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Benefits and Endpoints in Sport
Gammone, M. A., Riccioni, G., Parrinello, G., & D’Orazio, N. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11010046 · Cited by 326
Targeting inflammation in metabolic syndrome
Welty, F. K., Alfaddagh, A., & Elajami, T. K. (2016) · Translational Research · doi:10.1016/j.trsl.2015.06.017 · Cited by 287
Handelsman, Y., Jellinger, P. S., Guerin, C. K., Bloomgarden, Z. T., Brinton, E. A., Budoff, M. J., Davidson, M. H., Einhorn, D., Fazio, S., Fonseca, V. A., et al. (2020) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.4158/cs-2020-0490 · Cited by 248
Ruiz-Núñez, B., Pruimboom, L., Dijck-Brouwer, D. A. J., & Muskiet, F. A. J. (2013) · The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2013.02.009 · Cited by 246
Fish oil supplements in New Zealand are highly oxidised and do not meet label content of n-3 PUFA
Albert, B. B., Derraik, J. G. B., Cameron-Smith, D., Hofman, P. L., Tumanov, S., Villas-Boas, S. G., Garg, M. L., & Cutfield, W. S. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep07928 · Cited by 238
Cosmetic and Therapeutic Applications of Fish Oil’s Fatty Acids on the Skin
Huang, T.-H., Wang, P.-W., Yang, S.-C., Chou, W.-L., & Fang, J.-Y. (2018) · Marine Drugs · doi:10.3390/md16080256 · Cited by 210
Oliver, L., Dietrich, T., Marañón, I., Villarán, M. C., & Barrio, R. J. (2020) · Resources · doi:10.3390/resources9120148 · Cited by 198
Herbert, D., Franz, S., Popkova, Y., Anderegg, U., Schiller, J., Schwede, K., Lorz, A., Simon, J. C., & Saalbach, A. (2018) · Journal of Investigative Dermatology · doi:10.1016/j.jid.2018.03.1522 · Cited by 158
Madore, C., Leyrolle, Q., Lacabanne, C., Benmamar-Badel, A., Joffre, C., Nadjar, A., & Layé, S. (2016) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2016/3597209 · Cited by 141
Overview of anti-inflammatory diets and their promising effects on non-communicable diseases
Yu, X., Pu, H., & Voss, M. (2024) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114524001405 · Cited by 134
Omega-6 fats for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease
Hooper, L., Al-Khudairy, L., Abdelhamid, A. S., Rees, K., Brainard, J. S., Brown, T. J., Ajabnoor, S. M., O'Brien, A. T., Winstanley, L. E., Donaldson, D. H., et al. (2018) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd011094.pub4 · Cited by 133
Weill, P., Plissonneau, C., Legrand, P., Rioux, V., & Thibault, R. (2020) · Biochimie · doi:10.1016/j.biochi.2020.09.003 · Cited by 124
The role of lipid biomarkers in major depression
Parekh, A., Smeeth, D., Milner, Y., & Thuret, S. (2017) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare5010005 · Cited by 120
Blood omega-3 fatty acids and death from COVID-19: A pilot study
Asher, A., Tintle, N. L., Myers, M., Lockshon, L., Bacareza, H., & Harris, W. S. (2021) · Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids · doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2021.102250 · Cited by 118
Senftleber, N., Nielsen, S., Andersen, J., Bliddal, H., Tarp, S., Lauritzen, L., Furst, D., Suarez-Almazor, M., Lyddiatt, A., & Christensen, R. (2017) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu9010042 · Cited by 114
Lipids in Parenteral Nutrition: Biological Aspects
Calder, P. C., Waitzberg, D. L., Klek, S., & Martindale, R. G. (2020) · Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition · doi:10.1002/jpen.1756 · Cited by 102
Self-citationNikan, M., Osborn, M. F., Coles, A. H., Godinho, B. M., Hall, L. M., Haraszti, R. A., Hassler, M. R., Echeverria, D., Aronin, N., & Khvorova, A. (2016) · Molecular Therapy - Nucleic Acids · doi:10.1038/mtna.2016.50 · Cited by 85
Comparison of Diatoms and Dinoflagellates from Different Habitats as Sources of PUFAs
Peltomaa, E., Hällfors, H., & Taipale, S. J. (2019) · Marine Drugs · doi:10.3390/md17040233 · Cited by 73
Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Adipose Tissue: Inflammation and Browning
Kalupahana, N. S., Goonapienuwala, B. L., & Moustaid-Moussa, N. (2020) · Annual Review of Nutrition · doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-122319-034142 · Cited by 72
Chen, L.-H., Wang, Y.-F., Xu, Q.-H., & Chen, S.-S. (2018) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2016.12.009 · Cited by 72
He, S., Xu, Z., & Han, X. (2025) · Molecular Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/s13024-025-00803-6 · Cited by 62
Prentice, S. (2017) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2017.01641 · Cited by 52
Pharmaconutrition Review: Physiological Mechanisms
Pierre, J. F., Heneghan, A. F., Lawson, C. M., Wischmeyer, P. E., Kozar, R. A., & Kudsk, K. A. (2013) · Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition · doi:10.1177/0148607113493326 · Cited by 51
Modulating effect of fatty acids and sterols on skin aging
Wang, X., & Wu, J. (2019) · Journal of Functional Foods · doi:10.1016/j.jff.2019.04.011 · Cited by 41
Differentiating EPA from EPA/DHA in cardiovascular risk reduction
Toth, P. P., Chapman, M. J., Parhofer, K. G., & Nelson, J. R. (2022) · American Heart Journal Plus: Cardiology Research and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.ahjo.2022.100148 · Cited by 33
Kreymann, K. G., Heyland, D. K., de Heer, G., & Elke, G. (2018) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2017.07.006 · Cited by 29
Fulton, A. S., Hill, A. M., Williams, M. T., Howe, P. R. C., & Coates, A. M. (2015) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuv017 · Cited by 26
Role of DHA, ARA, & phospholipids in brain development: An Indian perspective
Garg, P., Pejaver, R. K., Sukhija, M., & Ahuja, A. (2017) · Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health · doi:10.1016/j.cegh.2017.09.003 · Cited by 20
Le, V. T., Knight, S., Watrous, J. D., Najhawan, M., Dao, K., McCubrey, R. O., Bair, T. L., Horne, B. D., May, H. T., Muhlestein, J. B., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.3389/fcvm.2023.1229130 · Cited by 18
The lipid paradox in neuroprogressive disorders: Causes and consequences
Morris, G., Berk, M., Walder, K., O’Neil, A., Maes, M., & Puri, B. K. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.06.017 · Cited by 17
Dhandayuthapani, K., Malathy, S., Mulla, S. I., & Gupta, S. K. (2021) · Algae · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-7518-1_7 · Cited by 19
Serini, S., & Calviello, G. (2021) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods10102306 · Cited by 14
Scannell, N., Villani, A., Moran, L., & Mantzioris, E. (2025) · Proceedings of the Nutrition Society · doi:10.1017/s0029665124007584 · Cited by 12
“The apparent anti-inflammatory benefits of a MedDiet have been shown in a number of clinical trials, including sub-group analysis of the PREDIMED study where adherence to both MedDiet intervention groups downregulated the expression of adhesion molecules on circulating T lymphocyte and monocyte surfaces, as well as in…”
InfluentialKhoonin, W., Shantavasinkul, P. C., Santivarangkna, C., Praengam, K., & Trachootham, D. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1164469 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Calder, P. C.
- Venue
- British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2013-02-05
- Volume
- 75
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 645-662
- ISSN
- 0306-5251 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2125
- OpenAlex
- W1596389679
- Cited by
- 1,347
- References
- 22
- FWCI
- 50.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
