Very long-chain n -3 fatty acids and human health: fact, fiction and the future
Open accessAbstract
EPA and DHA appear to be the most important n -3 fatty acids, but roles for n -3 docosapentaenoic acid are now also emerging. Intakes of EPA and DHA are usually low, typically below those recommended. Increased intakes result in higher concentrations of EPA and DHA in blood lipids, cells and tissues. Increased content of EPA and DHA modifies the structure of cell membranes and the function of membrane proteins. EPA and DHA modulate the production of lipid mediators and through effects on cell signalling can alter the patterns of gene expression. Through these mechanisms, EPA and DHA alter cell and tissue responsiveness in a way that often results in more optimal conditions for growth, development and maintenance of health. DHA has vital roles in brain and eye development and function. EPA and DHA have a wide range of physiological roles, which are linked to certain health or clinical benefits, particularly related to CVD, cancer, inflammation and neurocognitive function. The benefits of EPA and DHA are evident throughout the life course. Future research will include better identification of the determinants of variation of responses to increased intake of EPA and DHA; more in-depth dose–response studies of the effects of EPA and DHA; clearer identification of the specific roles of EPA, docosapentaenoic acid and DHA; testing strategies to enhance delivery of n -3 fatty acids to the bloodstream; and exploration of sustainable alternatives to fish-derived very long-chain n -3 fatty acids.
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The main drivers of the rising global prevalence of low omega-3 status are low fish intake and high intake of vegetable oils rich in linoleic acid, which pushes omega-3 fatty acids out of cell membrane phospholipids.
“The main contributors to the growing worldwide incidence of low omega-3 status are a low intake of fish and high intake of vegetable oils that are high in linoleic acid, which displaces omega-3 fatty acids in cell membrane phospholipids140,141”
From Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span (2019) · cites this paper as [141]
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Tocher, D., Betancor, M., Sprague, M., Olsen, R., & Napier, J. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11010089 · Cited by 615 · see citing works
Fatty Acids of Microalgae: Diversity and Applications
Maltsev, Y., & Maltseva, K. (2021) · Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology · doi:10.1007/s11157-021-09571-3 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Algae: Critical Sources of Very Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
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Bazan, N. G. (2018) · Molecular Aspects of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.mam.2018.09.003 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
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Bernaerts, T. M. M., Verstreken, H., Dejonghe, C., Gheysen, L., Foubert, I., Grauwet, T., & Van Loey, A. M. (2020) · Journal of Functional Foods · doi:10.1016/j.jff.2019.103770 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Calder, P. C.
- Affiliations
- Southampton General Hospital (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Calder, P. C.
- ORCID
- Calder, P. C.
- Venue
- Proceedings of the Nutrition Society
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2017-10-17
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 52-72
- ISSN
- 0029-6651 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-2719
- OpenAlex
- W2766185642
- Cited by
- 419
- References
- 273
- Citations by year
- 2026: 48 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 45 · 2023: 56 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 63 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 14
- FWCI
- 22.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of The Nutrition Society (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Aquaculture Nutrition and Growth
- Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Organic Chemistry › Edible Oils Quality and Analysis
- Keywords
- eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, docosapentaenoic acid, dietary intake, blood lipid concentration, cell membrane structure, lipid mediators, gene expression, brain development, eye development, cardiovascular disease, cancer, inflammation, neurocognitive function, dose-response relationship, sustainable alternatives
- MeSH terms
- Cell Membrane, Dietary Fats, Docosahexaenoic Acids, Eating, Fatty Acids, Unsaturated, Humans, Membrane Proteins, Eicosapentaenoic Acid, Gene Expression, Lipid Metabolism
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