Narcissistic Illusions in Self‐Evaluations of Intelligence and Attractiveness
Abstract
In this study we compared the ability of narcissism and self‐esteem to predict positive illusions in self‐evaluations of intelligence and physical attractiveness in a sample of 146 college students. Narcissism predicted both types of illusion for males and females; self‐esteem predicted intelligence self‐illusion for males. Both males and females overestimated their own intelligence, with males, but not females, also overestimating their attractiveness. Positive illusions for intelligence and attractiveness were correlated. Males showed greater positive illusions than females, with this effect at least partly attributable to observed gender differences in narcissism.
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Narcissists often believe that they are incredibly attractive, even when others might think that they are not.
“For example, narcissists often believe that they are incredibly attractive (Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994), even when others might think that they are not.”
From The "Why" and "How" of Narcissism: A Process Model of Narcissistic Status Pursuit (2020) · cites this paper as Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994
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Grijalva, E. J., & Zhang, L. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167215611636 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Wurst, S. N., Gerlach, T. M., Dufner, M., Rauthmann, J. F., Grosz, M. P., Küfner, A. C. P., Denissen, J. J. A., & Back, M. D. (2017) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000113 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
“…to be positively and highly related to, such as self-perceived attractiveness as a mate, desire for casual sex (i.e., sociosexuality), and the tendency to readily and unrestrainedly approach members of the opposite sex (e.g., W. K. Campbell et al., 2006; Gabriel et al., 1994; Jonason et al., 2009).”
BackgroundPuffed-up but shaky selves: State self-esteem level and variability in narcissists.
Geukes, K., Nestler, S., Hutteman, R., Dufner, M., Küfner, A. C. P., Egloff, B., Denissen, J. J. A., & Back, M. D. (2016) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000093 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Robins, R. W., & John, O. P. (1997) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012134645-4/50026-3 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Entrepreneurial personality: The role of narcissism
Mathieu, C., & St-Jean, É. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.04.026 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Lakey, C., Rose, P., Campbell, W. K., & Goodie, A. (2008) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.582 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
There is no “I” in nature: The influence of self-awareness on connectedness to nature
Frantz, C. M., Mayer, F. S., Norton, C. M., & Rock, M. S. (2005) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2005.10.002 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Overconfidence and Social Signalling
Burks, S. V., Carpenter, J. P., Goette, L. F., & Rustichini, A. (2013) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1093/restud/rds046 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
“In recent years, a re-examination of the correlation between self-esteem and outcomes of interest has consistently found a weak relationship to school performance (Davies and Brember, 1999; Kugle et al., 1983), and IQ (Gabriel et al., 1994).”
BackgroundHoltzman, N. S., & Strube, M. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.10.004 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
“The All Text option returns articles that contain the searched word at any place in the abstract, keywords, journal or book title, article or chapter title, subject line, or table of contents.”
BackgroundInfluentialNarcissism and the pursuit of status.
Zeigler-Hill, V., Vrabel, J. K., McCabe, G. A., Cosby, C. A., Traeder, C. K., Hobbs, K. A., & Southard, A. C. (2018) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12392 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Hear Me Write: Does CEO Narcissism Affect Disclosure?
Márquez-Illescas, G., Zebedee, A. A., & Zhou, L. (2018) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-018-3796-3 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
“…indicates that more narcissistic individuals tend to describe their professional performance and physical appearance in a more positive way because this allows them to feed or reinforce their impressive self-image (e.g., Gabriel et al. 1994; John and Robins 1994; Farwell and Wohlwend-Lloyd 1998).”
BackgroundInterpersonal evaluations following threats to self: Role of self-esteem.
Heatherton, T. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.725 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Looking again, and harder, for a link between low self-esteem and aggression.
Bushman, B. J., Baumeister, R. F., Thomaes, S., Ryu, E., Begeer, S., & West, S. G. (2009) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00553.x · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Envy Divides the Two Faces of Narcissism
Križan, Z., & Johar, O. (2012) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00767.x · Cited by 170 · see citing works
“dence (Buss & Chiodo, 1991; Miller & Campbell, 2008) allow them to both develop and maintain unrealistic self-views regarding their ability and social value (Gabriel et al., 1994).”
BackgroundDie Messung von Narzissmus als Persönlichkeitskonstrukt:
Schütz, A., Marcus, B., & Sellin, I. (2004) · Diagnostica · doi:10.1026/0012-1924.50.4.202 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Humble Beginnings: Current Trends, State Perspectives, and Hallmarks of Humility
Chancellor, J., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2013) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12069 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
The Deliberate Engagement of Narcissistic CEOs in Earnings Management
Buchholz, F., Lopatta, K., & Maas, K. (2020) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-019-04176-x · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. T. (2001) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1204_3 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
DeYoung, C. G. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511977244.036 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Narcissism and Intrinsic Motivation: The Role of Goal Congruence
Morf, C. C., Weir, C. R., & Davidov, M. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1421 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Positive Illusions and Forecasting Errors in Mutual Fund Investment Decisions
Moore, D. A., Kurtzberg, T. R., Fox, C. R., & Bazerman, M. H. (1999) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.1999.2835 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“Examples of overly positive self-evaluation are the robust tendencies for most people to see themselves as more intelligent ( Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994 ), more attractive (Gurman & Balban, 1990), and better drivers (Svenson, 1981) than average.”
BackgroundEffects of Visual Perspective and Narcissism on Self-Perception: Is Seeing Believing?
Robins, R. W., & John, O. P. (1997) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00541.x · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Westerman, J. W., Bergman, J. Z., Bergman, S. M., & Daly, J. P. (2011) · Organizational Behavior Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/1052562911408097 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the mean of the current sample is higher (although not statistically significant) than the remaining two means reported (Gabriel et al., 1994, and Gustafson & Ritzer, 1995).”
ResultBaek, T. H., Yoo, C. Y., & Yoon, S. (2016) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2016.1244887 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“…that narcissism is closely associated with positive and grandiose self-views (Brown and Zeigler-Hill 2004; Campbell, Rudich, and Sedikides 2002; Gabriel, Critelli, and Ee 1994), and thus, narcissists are more concerned about physical appearances than are non-narcissists (Vazire et al. 2008).”
BackgroundShackelford, T. K. (2001) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00023-4 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“Gabriel, Critelli and Ee (1994) , however, found no relationship between self-esteem and observer-rated or self-rated physical attractiveness.”
BackgroundOpen to experience—closed to intelligence: Why the ‘Big Five’ are really the ‘Comprehensive Six’
Brand, C. R. (1994) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2410080407 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Better than my loved ones: Social comparison tendencies among narcissists
Križan, Z., & Bushman, B. J. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.031 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“They overestimate their physical attractiveness and general intelligence (Gabriel et al., 1994), rate their performance in a realistic management task higher than other participants or relevant experts (John & Robins, 1994), and generally view themselves as better than others”
BackgroundNarcissistic defensiveness: hypervigilance and avoidance of worthlessness
Horvath, S., & Morf, C. C. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.07.011 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“For example, they overestimate their general intelligence (Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994), they think they are more attractive than their peers (Gabriel et al., 1994; Rhodewalt & Eddings, 2002), and they also overestimate their personal accomplishments relative to those of others (e.g., in group…”
BackgroundI'm Too Good for This Job: Narcissism's Role in the Experience of Overqualification
Maynard, D. C., Brondolo, E. M., Connelly, C. E., & Sauer, C. E. (2014) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12031 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Gender Differences in Self-Perception and Negative Recall Biases
Beyer, S. (1998) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/a:1018768729602 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Rhodewalt, F. T., & Eddings, S. K. (2002) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1006/jrpe.2002.2342 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Atieh, M. A., Payne, A. G. T., Duncan, W. J., Silva, K. D., & Cullinan, M. P. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Parenting Narcissus: What Are the Links Between Parenting and Narcissism?
Horton, R. S., Bleau, G., & Drwecki, B. (2006) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00378.x · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Weeden, J., & Sabini, J. P. (2006) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9075-x · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“Studies have found inconsistent evidence on whether selfratings of attractiveness concur with third-party ratings of face photos (Clark, 2004; Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994 ), but have found that self-ratings correlate with BMI (Cash & Hicks, 1990; McCreary & Sadava, 2001) and women’s WHR (Singh, 2004).”
BackgroundNarcissistic Force Meets Systemic Resistance: The Energy Clash Model
Sedikides, C., & Campbell, W. K. (2017) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691617692105 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Carlson, K. S., & Gjerde, P. F. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.03.003 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Gender Differences in Academic Entitlement Among College Students
Ciani, K. D., Summers, J. J., & Easter, M. A. (2008) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.3200/gntp.169.4.332-344 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Avi Besser, A., & Zeigler‐Hill, V. (2010) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.06.006 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Gosling, S. D., John, O. P., Craik, K. H., & Robins, R. W. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.5.1337 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Sex Differences in Judgments of Physical Attractiveness: A Social Relations Analysis
Marcus, D. K., & Miller, R. S. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202250193 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Morf, C. C. (2006) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00419.x · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Narcissism as a predictor of motivations behind Facebook profile picture selection
Kapidzic, S. (2013) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2012.0143 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“…of narcissism from previous work (e.g., low intimacy striving, 18 viewing oneself as superior, 19 and overestimation of own attractiveness 20 ), adding ‘‘the goals of how individuals would like to see themselves and be seen by others,’’ 21(p. 57) as the main element of nar-cissistic…”
Too arrogant for their own good? Why and when narcissists dismiss advice
Kausel, E. E., Culbertson, S. S., Leiva, P. I., Slaughter, J. E., & Jackson, A. (2015) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.07.006 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
- Authors
- Gabriel, M. T., Critelli, J. W., & Ee, J. S.
- Affiliations
- University of North Texas (US)
- Corresponding author
- Critelli, Joseph W.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1994-03
- Volume
- 62
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 143-155
- ISSN
- 0022-3506 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-6494
- OpenAlex
- W1996705059
- Semantic Scholar
- 5535ac46bf46cfdc14f7c40d0fecad5c92745a9a
- Cited by
- 478
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 4.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Keywords
- narcissism, self-esteem, positive illusions, self-assessment, gender differences, university students
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