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Narcissistic Illusions in Self‐Evaluations of Intelligence and Attractiveness
Abstract
In this study we compared the ability of narcissism and self‐esteem to predict positive illusions in self‐evaluations of intelligence and physical attractiveness in a sample of 146 college students. Narcissism predicted both types of illusion for males and females; self‐esteem predicted intelligence self‐illusion for males. Both males and females overestimated their own intelligence, with males, but not females, also overestimating their attractiveness. Positive illusions for intelligence and attractiveness were correlated. Males showed greater positive illusions than females, with this effect at least partly attributable to observed gender differences in narcissism.
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“For example, narcissists often believe that they are incredibly attractive (Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994), even when others might think that they are not.”
From The "Why" and "How" of Narcissism: A Process Model of Narcissistic Status Pursuit (2020) · cites this paper as Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994
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InfluentialNarcissism, Self-Esteem, and the Positivity of Self-Views: Two Portraits of Self-Love
Campbell, W. K., Rudich, E. A., & Sedikides, C. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202286007 · Cited by 866
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InfluentialThe Narcissism Spectrum Model: A Synthetic View of Narcissistic Personality
Krizan, Z., & Herlache, A. D. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868316685018 · Cited by 807
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“Gabriel, Critelli, and Ee (1994) found that narcissists rated themselves as more intelligent and attractive than they were rated by others.”
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Sedikides, C., Rudich, E. A., Gregg, A. P., Kumashiro, M., & Rusbult, C. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.400 · Cited by 735
“For example, Gabriel, Critelli, and Ee (1994) asked participants to rate their own intelligence and physical attractiveness in relation to the average college student.”
Narcissism in organizational contexts
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Narcissism and Leadership: A Meta‐Analytic Review of Linear and Nonlinear Relationships
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The performance of narcissists rises and falls with perceived opportunity for glory.
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“Narcissists consistently rate themselves as better than others (e.g., Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Gabriel et al., 1994; John & Robins, 1994; Raskin, 1980; Robins & John, 1997), and they have high self-efficacy (e.”
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Brunell, A. B., Gentry, W. A., Campbell, W. K., Hoffman, B. J., Kuhnert, K. W., & DeMarree, K. G. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208324101 · Cited by 516
“This is not particularly surprising; narcissists may have inflated views of their intelligence (Gabriel et al., 1994), but other research shows no correlation between narcissism and general knowledge (Campbell et al.”
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Côté, S., & Miners, C. T. H. (2006) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2189/asqu.51.1.1 · Cited by 873
“…tend to have inflated views of their abilities, with narcissism explaining approximately 20 percent of the variance in selfreported abilities (Gabriel, Critelli, and Ee, 1994), (2) people tend to fake responses and report having higher abilities than they believe they have (Donovan, Dwight,…”
BackgroundFox, J., & Rooney, M. C. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.017 · Cited by 465
“Because narcissists value their physical appearance (Davis, Dionne, & Shuster, 2001) and male narcissists overestimate their attractiveness (Gabriel et al., 1994), they may be compelled to share more pictures of themselves on SNSs and edit their photos to maximize attractiveness.”
Background6 The Narcissistic Self: Background, an Extended Agency Model, and Ongoing Controversies
Campbell, W. K., & Foster, J. D. (2015) · Cited by 445
Narcissism, extraversion and adolescents’ self-presentation on Facebook
Ong, E. Y. L., Ang, R. P., Ho, J. C. M., Lim, J. C. Y., Goh, D. H., Lee, C. S., & Chua, A. Y. K. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.022 · Cited by 432
“These strategies help affirm their positive illusions of their own physical attractiveness (Bleske-Rechek et al., 2008; Gabriel et al., 1994).”
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“Empirical findings relevant to this conclusion include the following: Narcissists believe that they are unique (Emmons, 1984) and smarter and more attractive than others (e.g., Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994).”
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Campbell, W. K., & Foster, C. A. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202287006 · Cited by 408
“This may be the result of narcissists possessing inflated views of self compared to others (e.g., Gabriel et al., 1994).”
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Narcissism, Identity, And Legitimacy
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Understanding the Social Costs of Narcissism: The Case of the Tragedy of the Commons
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“Narcissists believe that they are smarter, more creative, and more attractive than others, even though these beliefs are largely groundless (e.g., Campbell et al., 2002; Gabriel et al., 1994).”
BackgroundCEO Narcissism and the Impact of Prior Board Experience on Corporate Strategy
Zhu, D. H., & Chen, G. (2014) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0001839214554989 · Cited by 356
“…suggests that narcissistic individuals tend to interpret their past behavior very positively so as to maintain their inflated high self-esteem (Gabriel, Critelli, and Ee, 1994; Farwell and Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Carlson, Vazire, and Oltmanns, 2011), especially when their behavior is publicly…”
Narcissism and romantic attraction.
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Authoritarianism, Social Dominance, and Other Roots of Generalized Prejudice
McFarland, S. G. (2010) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00765.x · Cited by 349
Self‐Report Measures of Intelligence: Are They Useful as Proxy IQ Tests?
Paulhus, D. L., Lysy, D. C., & Yik, M. (1998) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00023 · Cited by 348
Farwell, L., & Wohlwend‐Lloyd, R. (1998) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00003 · Cited by 328
“Previous studies of narcissism and self-enhancement have obtained percentile ratings or self-rankings only (Gabriel et al., 1994; John & Robins, 1994; but see Raskin et al., 1991).”
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The "Why" and "How" of Narcissism: A Process Model of Narcissistic Status Pursuit
Grapsas, S., Brummelman, E., Back, M. D., & Denissen, J. J. A. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691619873350 · Cited by 312
Reconceptualizing Individual Differences in Self-Enhancement Bias: An Interpersonal Approach.
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“Self-enhancement of intelligence can be studied by comparing self-perceptions with intelligence test scores ( Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994; Paulhus, 1998), and self-perceptions of academic ability can be compared with actual grades (Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Robins & Beer, 2001).”
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Master of Puppets: How Narcissistic CEOs Construct Their Professional Worlds
Chatterjee, A., & Pollock, T. G. (2016) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2015.0224 · Cited by 296
The Effects of the Dark Triad on Unethical Behavior
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CEO Narcissism and Accounting: A Picture of Profits
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Narcissism: An Integrative Synthesis and Dominance Complementarity Model
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“In addition, they have inflated self-views and tend to think they are better than others (Campbell, Reeder, Sedikides, & Elliot, 2000; Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994; John & Robins, 1994; Robins & John, 1997).”
Dispositional Sources of Managerial Discretion: CEO Ideology, CEO Personality, and Firm Strategies
Gupta, A., Nadkarni, S., & Mariam, M. (2018) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0001839218793128 · Cited by 250
“Narcissists believe they are smarter, more creative, and more attractive than others and therefore enjoy a sense of psychological entitlement (Gabriel, Critelli, and Ee, 1994; Campbell, Rudich, and Sedikides, 2002).”
BackgroundCaprara, G. V., & Cervone, D. (2000) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511812767.006 · Cited by 244
Mind-Reading and Metacognition: Narcissism, not Actual Competence, Predicts Self-Estimated Ability
Ames, D. R., & Kammrath, L. K. (2004) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1023/b:jonb.0000039649.20015.0e · Cited by 238
“Those who score high in narcissism tend to have overly positive interpretations of their particular attributes and performances, including intelligence and attractiveness (e.g., Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994 ), positive personality traits (e.g., Paulhus, 1998), and performance in group discussions (e.g., Robins & John…”
BackgroundSedikides, C., & Gregg, A. P. (2007) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781848608221.n5 · Cited by 242
Krizan, Z., & Johar, O. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000013 · Cited by 234
All I need is a stage to shine: Narcissists' leader emergence and performance
Nevicka, B., Hoogh, A. H. B. D., Vianen, A. E. M. V., Beersma, B., & McIlwain, D. J. F. (2011) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.07.011 · Cited by 232
“They also tend to overestimate their level of (physical) attractiveness (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008) as well as their intelligence (Gabriel et al., 1994), and they amplify their positive personality characteristics (Paulhus, 1998).”
BackgroundThe Relation Between Intelligence and Religiosity
Zuckerman, M., Silberman, J., & Hall, J. A. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868313497266 · Cited by 255
Untangling the Links between Narcissism and Self‐esteem: A Theoretical and Empirical Review
Bosson, J. K., Lakey, C. E., Campbell, W. K., Zeigler‐Hill, V., Jordan, C. H., & Kernis, M. H. (2008) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00089.x · Cited by 314
“On this basis, Gregg and Sedikides (2008) argued that there is no theoretical rationale for assuming that explicit and implicit self-esteem will interact to predict narcissism (the pattern depicted in Figures 1 and 2).”
Relationship among American presidential charismatic leadership, narcissism, and rated performance
Deluga, R. J. (1997) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/s1048-9843(97)90030-8 · Cited by 226
Carlson, E. N., Vazire, S., & Oltmanns, T. F. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023781 · Cited by 222
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“…to be positively and highly related to, such as self-perceived attractiveness as a mate, desire for casual sex (i.e., sociosexuality), and the tendency to readily and unrestrainedly approach members of the opposite sex (e.g., W. K. Campbell et al., 2006; Gabriel et al., 1994; Jonason et al., 2009).”
BackgroundPuffed-up but shaky selves: State self-esteem level and variability in narcissists.
Geukes, K., Nestler, S., Hutteman, R., Dufner, M., Küfner, A. C. P., Egloff, B., Denissen, J. J. A., & Back, M. D. (2016) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000093 · Cited by 230
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Entrepreneurial personality: The role of narcissism
Mathieu, C., & St-Jean, É. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.04.026 · Cited by 208
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There is no “I” in nature: The influence of self-awareness on connectedness to nature
Frantz, C. M., Mayer, F. S., Norton, C. M., & Rock, M. S. (2005) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2005.10.002 · Cited by 187
Overconfidence and Social Signalling
Burks, S. V., Carpenter, J. P., Goette, L. F., & Rustichini, A. (2013) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1093/restud/rds046 · Cited by 185
“In recent years, a re-examination of the correlation between self-esteem and outcomes of interest has consistently found a weak relationship to school performance (Davies and Brember, 1999; Kugle et al., 1983), and IQ (Gabriel et al., 1994).”
BackgroundHoltzman, N. S., & Strube, M. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.10.004 · Cited by 184
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BackgroundInfluentialNarcissism and the pursuit of status
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Vrabel, J. K., McCabe, G. A., Cosby, C. A., Traeder, C. K., Hobbs, K. A., & Southard, A. C. (2018) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12392 · Cited by 193
Hear Me Write: Does CEO Narcissism Affect Disclosure?
Márquez-Illescas, G., Zebedee, A. A., & Zhou, L. (2018) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-018-3796-3 · Cited by 181
“…indicates that more narcissistic individuals tend to describe their professional performance and physical appearance in a more positive way because this allows them to feed or reinforce their impressive self-image (e.g., Gabriel et al. 1994; John and Robins 1994; Farwell and Wohlwend-Lloyd 1998).”
BackgroundInterpersonal evaluations following threats to self: Role of self-esteem.
Heatherton, T. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.725 · Cited by 179
Looking again, and harder, for a link between low self-esteem and aggression.
Bushman, B. J., Baumeister, R. F., Thomaes, S., Ryu, E., Begeer, S., & West, S. G. (2009) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00553.x · Cited by 261
Envy Divides the Two Faces of Narcissism
Križan, Z., & Johar, O. (2011) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00767.x · Cited by 190
“dence (Buss & Chiodo, 1991; Miller & Campbell, 2008) allow them to both develop and maintain unrealistic self-views regarding their ability and social value (Gabriel et al., 1994).”
BackgroundDie Messung von Narzissmus als Persönlichkeitskonstrukt:
Schütz, A., Marcus, B., & Sellin, I. (2004) · Diagnostica · doi:10.1026/0012-1924.50.4.202 · Cited by 169
Humble Beginnings: Current Trends, State Perspectives, and Hallmarks of Humility
Chancellor, J., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2013) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12069 · Cited by 171
The Deliberate Engagement of Narcissistic CEOs in Earnings Management
Buchholz, F., Lopatta, K., & Maas, K. (2019) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-019-04176-x · Cited by 180
Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. T. (2001) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1204_3 · Cited by 151
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Narcissism and Intrinsic Motivation: The Role of Goal Congruence
Morf, C. C., Weir, C. R., & Davidov, M. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1421 · Cited by 143
Positive Illusions and Forecasting Errors in Mutual Fund Investment Decisions
Moore, D. A., Kurtzberg, T. R., Fox, C. R., & Bazerman, M. H. (1999) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.1999.2835 · Cited by 140
“Examples of overly positive self-evaluation are the robust tendencies for most people to see themselves as more intelligent ( Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994 ), more attractive (Gurman & Balban, 1990), and better drivers (Svenson, 1981) than average.”
BackgroundEffects of Visual Perspective and Narcissism on Self-Perception: Is Seeing Believing?
Robins, R. W., & John, O. P. (1997) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00541.x · Cited by 141
Westerman, J. W., Bergman, J. Z., Bergman, S. M., & Daly, J. P. (2011) · Organizational Behavior Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/1052562911408097 · Cited by 138
“Furthermore, the mean of the current sample is higher (although not statistically significant) than the remaining two means reported (Gabriel et al., 1994, and Gustafson & Ritzer, 1995).”
ResultBaek, T. H., Yoo, C. Y., & Yoon, S. (2016) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2016.1244887 · Cited by 154
“…that narcissism is closely associated with positive and grandiose self-views (Brown and Zeigler-Hill 2004; Campbell, Rudich, and Sedikides 2002; Gabriel, Critelli, and Ee 1994), and thus, narcissists are more concerned about physical appearances than are non-narcissists (Vazire et al. 2008).”
BackgroundShackelford, T. K. (2001) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00023-4 · Cited by 153
“Gabriel, Critelli and Ee (1994) , however, found no relationship between self-esteem and observer-rated or self-rated physical attractiveness.”
BackgroundOpen to experience—closed to intelligence: Why the ‘Big Five’ are really the ‘Comprehensive Six’
Brand, C. R. (1994) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2410080407 · Cited by 133
Better than my loved ones: Social comparison tendencies among narcissists
Križan, Z., & Bushman, B. J. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.031 · Cited by 131
“They overestimate their physical attractiveness and general intelligence (Gabriel et al., 1994), rate their performance in a realistic management task higher than other participants or relevant experts (John & Robins, 1994), and generally view themselves as better than others”
BackgroundNarcissistic defensiveness: hypervigilance and avoidance of worthlessness
Horvath, S., & Morf, C. C. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.07.011 · Cited by 130
“For example, they overestimate their general intelligence (Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994), they think they are more attractive than their peers (Gabriel et al., 1994; Rhodewalt & Eddings, 2002), and they also overestimate their personal accomplishments relative to those of others (e.g., in group…”
BackgroundI'm Too Good for This Job: Narcissism's Role in the Experience of Overqualification
Maynard, D. C., Brondolo, E. M., Connelly, C. E., & Sauer, C. E. (2014) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12031 · Cited by 127
Gender Differences in Self-Perception and Negative Recall Biases
Beyer, S. (1998) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/a:1018768729602 · Cited by 126
Rhodewalt, F. T., & Eddings, S. K. (2002) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1006/jrpe.2002.2342 · Cited by 121
Atieh, M. A., Payne, A. G. T., Duncan, W. J., Silva, K. D., & Cullinan, M. P. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 117
Parenting Narcissus: What Are the Links Between Parenting and Narcissism?
Horton, R. S., Bleau, G., & Drwecki, B. (2006) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00378.x · Cited by 200
Weeden, J., & Sabini, J. P. (2006) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9075-x · Cited by 112
“Studies have found inconsistent evidence on whether selfratings of attractiveness concur with third-party ratings of face photos (Clark, 2004; Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994 ), but have found that self-ratings correlate with BMI (Cash & Hicks, 1990; McCreary & Sadava, 2001) and women’s WHR (Singh, 2004).”
BackgroundNarcissistic Force Meets Systemic Resistance: The Energy Clash Model
Sedikides, C., & Campbell, W. K. (2017) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691617692105 · Cited by 143
Carlson, K. S., & Gjerde, P. F. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.03.003 · Cited by 106
Gender Differences in Academic Entitlement Among College Students
Ciani, K. D., Summers, J. J., & Easter, M. A. (2008) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.3200/gntp.169.4.332-344 · Cited by 110
Avi Besser, A., & Zeigler‐Hill, V. (2010) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.06.006 · Cited by 112
Gosling, S. D., John, O. P., Craik, K. H., & Robins, R. W. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.5.1337 · Cited by 315
Sex Differences in Judgments of Physical Attractiveness: A Social Relations Analysis
Marcus, D. K., & Miller, R. S. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202250193 · Cited by 110
Morf, C. C. (2006) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00419.x · Cited by 115
Narcissism as a predictor of motivations behind Facebook profile picture selection
Kapidzic, S. (2013) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2012.0143 · Cited by 104
“…of narcissism from previous work (e.g., low intimacy striving, 18 viewing oneself as superior, 19 and overestimation of own attractiveness 20 ), adding ‘‘the goals of how individuals would like to see themselves and be seen by others,’’ 21(p. 57) as the main element of nar-cissistic…”
Too arrogant for their own good? Why and when narcissists dismiss advice
Kausel, E. E., Culbertson, S. S., Leiva, P. I., Slaughter, J. E., & Jackson, A. (2015) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.07.006 · Cited by 109
Metadata
- Authors
- Gabriel, M. T., Critelli, J. W., & Ee, J. S.
- Affiliations
- University of North Texas (US)
- Corresponding author
- Critelli, Joseph W.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1994-03
- Volume
- 62
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 143-155
- ISSN
- 0022-3506 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-6494
- OpenAlex
- W1996705059
- Semantic Scholar
- 5535ac46bf46cfdc14f7c40d0fecad5c92745a9a
- Cited by
- 478
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 4.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Keywords
- narcissism, self-esteem, positive illusions, self-assessment, gender differences, university students
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