Social-Evaluative Threat and Proinflammatory Cytokine Regulation: An Experimental Laboratory Investigation
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This study experimentally tested whether a stressor characterized by social-evaluative threat (SET), a context in which the self can be judged negatively by others, would elicit increases in proinflammatory cytokine activity and alter the regulation of this response. This hypothesis was derived in part from research on immunological responses to social threat in nonhuman animals. Healthy female participants were assigned to perform a speech and a math task in the presence or absence of an evaluative audience (SET or non-SET, respectively). As hypothesized, stimulated production of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) increased from baseline to poststressor in the SET condition, but was unchanged in the non-SET condition. Further, the increases in TNF-α production correlated with participants' cognitive appraisals of being evaluated. Additionally, the ability of glucocorticoids to shut down the inflammatory response was decreased in the SET condition. These findings underscore the importance of social evaluation as a threat capable of eliciting proinflammatory cytokine activity and altering its regulation.
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In two human studies, the effects of acute stress on glucocorticoid resistance were confined to women.
“In both of these latter studies, however, the effects of acute stress on glucocorticoid resistance were confined to women, highlighting a need for additional research on this topic.”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Dickerson, Gable, Irwin, Aziz, & Kemeny, 2009
The Abstract says this study was limited to healthy women, and the Results report decreased glucocorticoid sensitivity in the social-evaluative-threat condition. But the Discussion says all participants were women and calls for research on whether the findings generalize to men. The study therefore cannot establish that the effect was confined to women rather than also occurring in men. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredExposure to social cues indicating an increased risk for possible physical danger induces glucocorticoid resistance.
“Evidence that even acute stress can alter glucocorticoid sensitivity is provided by research showing that exposure to social cues indicating an increased risk for possible physical danger induces glucocorticoid resistance.”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Dickerson, Gable, Irwin, Aziz, & Kemeny, 2009
The Results (Glucocorticoid Inhibition of Stimulated TNF-α Production; page unavailable) report decreased glucocorticoid sensitivity after an acute social-evaluative stressor compared with a non-evaluative condition. But the study tested evaluation by an audience, not social cues indicating an increased risk of physical danger. The Discussion presents possible wounding after an antagonistic encounter as an explanation, not a tested feature of the cues. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredNegative social evaluation also elicits autonomic nervous system activation, proinflammatory cytokine increases, and self-reported negative affect.
“Negative social evaluation also elicits autonomic nervous system activation, proinflammatory cytokine increases, and self-reported negative affect (Akinola and Mendes, 2008; Bosch et al., 2009; Dickerson et al., 2009).”
From More than a feeling: A unified view of stress measurement for population science (2018) · cites this paper as Dickerson et al., 2009
The Discussion reports increased TNF-α production in the social-evaluative condition. The Results (Task Appraisals and Manipulation Checks) report cardiovascular activation, but it was similar with and without social evaluation; the Assessments section does not report a measure of self-reported negative affect. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredParticipants judged the two TSST conditions (with vs. without socially rejecting raters) to be equally challenging, controllable, and difficult.
“participants judged these two conditions to be equally challenging, controllable, and difficult”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Dickerson, Gable, et al., 2009
Individuals who completed the TSST in the presence of socially rejecting raters exhibited greater in vitro LPS-stimulated production of TNFα and greater glucocorticoid resistance than individuals who performed the TSST in the absence of these raters.
“individuals who completed the TSST in the presence of socially rejecting raters exhibited greater in vitro LPS-stimulated production of TNFα and greater glucocorticoid resistance than individuals who performed the TSST in the absence of these raters”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Dickerson, Gable, et al., 2009
Individuals who felt more evaluated in both conditions of the TSST exhibited greater increases in TNFα production, even after controlling for participants' perceptions of TSST-related challenge, controllability, and difficulty.
“individuals who felt more evaluated in both conditions of the TSST exhibited greater increases in TNFα production, even after controlling for participants' perceptions of TSST-related challenge, controllability, and difficulty”
From From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. (2014) · cites this paper as Dickerson, Gable, et al., 2009
Different types of stress vary in their salience to key biological systems thought to mediate stress and negative health outcomes.
“Yet, a parallel line of experimental research has demonstrated that different types of stress vary in their salience to the key biological systems thought to mediate stress and negative health outcomes (e.g., Dickerson, Gable, Irwin, Aziz, & Kemeny, 2009; Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004; Kuhlman et al., 2014; Lopez-Duran, Hajal, Olson, Felt, & Vazquez, 2009).”
From Developmental psychoneuroendocrine and psychoneuroimmune pathways from childhood adversity to disease (2017) · cites this paper as Dickerson, Gable, Irwin, Aziz, & Kemeny, 2009
The perception of threat that leads suicidal individuals to contemplate suicide may activate biological stress responses, including inflammatory responses.
“Additionally, the perception of threat that leads suicidal individuals to contemplate suicide may activate biological stress responses, including inflammatory responses.[22][23][24]”
From SUICIDAL IDEATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH ELEVATED INFLAMMATION IN PATIENTS WITH MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER: Research Article: Suicidal Ideation and Inflammation (2013) · cites this paper as [22]
Hopelessness and perceived psychological stress may promote inflammation in suicidal individuals.
“In particular, hopelessness and perceived psychological stress may promote inflammation in suicidal individuals.[22,23,37]”
From SUICIDAL IDEATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH ELEVATED INFLAMMATION IN PATIENTS WITH MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER: Research Article: Suicidal Ideation and Inflammation (2013) · cites this paper as [22]
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- Authors
- Dickerson, S. S., Gable, S. L., Irwin, M. R., Aziz, N., & Kemeny, M. E.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Corresponding author
- Dickerson, Sally S.
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2009-10
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1237-1244
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- PMC
- PMC2761517
- OpenAlex
- W2108820669
- Cited by
- 197
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 3.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Center for Research Resources ((M01 RR00865), M01RR000865)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Biological Psychiatry › Tryptophan and brain disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Cancer, Stress, Anesthesia, and Immune Response
- Keywords
- social-evaluative threat, inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, stress, cognitive appraisal, glucocorticoids, inflammation modulation, social evaluation, speaking tasks, audience evaluation
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Analysis of Variance, Blood Pressure, Emotions, Female, Glucocorticoids, Humans, Mathematics, Surveys and Questionnaires, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Speech, Stress, Psychological, Task Performance and Analysis, Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha, Cytokines, Young Adult
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