Direct 4D Printing Via Active Composite Materials
Open accessAbstract
We describe an approach to print composite polymers in high-resolution three-dimensional (3D) architectures that can be rapidly transformed to a new permanent configuration directly by heating. The permanent shape of a component results from the programmed time evolution of the printed shape upon heating via the design of the architecture and process parameters of a composite consisting of a glassy shape memory polymer and an elastomer that is programmed with a built-in compressive strain during photopolymerization. Upon heating, the shape memory polymer softens, releases the constraint on the strained elastomer, and allows the object to transform into a new permanent shape, which can then be reprogrammed into multiple subsequent shapes. Our key advance, the markedly simplified creation of high-resolution complex 3D reprogrammable structures, promises to enable myriad applications across domains, including medical technology, aerospace, and consumer products, and even suggests a new paradigm in product design, where components are simultaneously designed to inhabit multiple configurations during service.
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The thermoviscoelastic approach has been applied to soft robotics and actuators, focusing on direct 4D printing, single-material structures, and composite structures.
“The thermoviscoelastic approach has been applied to soft robotics and actuators, e.g., focusing on direct 4D printing [211], single-material structures [215],and composite structures [208,252].”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [211]
The Materials and Methods section (page unavailable) says the authors used a thermoviscoelastic model for their printed materials, and the Results describe direct 4D-printed structures. Citation [211] is attached specifically to direct 4D printing, not to the separately cited single-material and composite structures. The Results say that designing samples for specific actuation forces was “not studied here”; the paper does not establish an application to soft robotics or actuators. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDing et al. imparted an eigenstrain during the printing process, called printing strain, in SMP/elastomer bilayer structures and named the approach direct 4D printing.
“To generate the internal stress, Ding et al. [211] imparted an eigenstrain during the printing process (the so-called 'printing strain') in SMP/elastomer bilayer structures and named the approach 'direct 4D printing'.”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [211]
Such an approach allows printing simple geometries, such as two-dimensional flat sheets, reducing support material, that can transform to a complex geometry without post-printing SMP programming.
“Such an approach allows one to print simple geometries (e.g., two-dimensional flat sheets), thereby reducing the quantity of support material during printing that can transform to a complex geometry (e.g., a three-dimensional object) without the need of post-printing SMP programming.”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [211]
The combination of 3D printing and the on-demand autonomous shape-shifting offers unique advantages beyond other 4D printing systems.
“The combination of 3D printing and the on-demand autonomous shape-shifting offers unique advantages beyond other 4D printing systems 26-28 .”
From Shape memory polymer with programmable recovery onset (2023) · cites this paper as [28]
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- Authors
- Ding, Z., Yuan, C., Peng, X., Wang, T., Qi, H. J., & Dunn, M. L.
- Affiliations
- Singapore University of Technology and Design (SG)
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Zhejiang University (CN)
- State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Structure Strength and Vibration (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Ding, Zhen
- Yuan, Chao
- Qi, H. Jerry
- Dunn, Martin L.
- Venue
- Science Advances
- Published
- 2017-04-07
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- e1602890-e1602890
- ISSN
- 2375-2548 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5389747
- OpenAlex
- W2605898329
- Cited by
- 692
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 48 · 2025: 74 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 89 · 2020: 94 · 2019: 79 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 50.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- Science Advances (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Air Force Office of Scientific Research (ID0EPUBG15881, 15RT0885)
- Division of Civil, Mechanical and Manufacturing Innovation (ID0E21BG15882, 1462894, 1462895)
- National Research Foundation Singapore (ID0EKBAI15883)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Advanced Materials and Mechanics
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Polymers and Plastics › Polymer composites and self-healing
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies
- Keywords
- 4D printing, shape memory polymers, polymer composites, reconfigurable structures, photopolymerization, compressive strain, elastomers, thermal actuation, shape transformation, high-resolution 3D printing
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