The DOI matches its Crossref record; 56 of the 56 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A Paravascular Pathway Facilitates CSF Flow Through the Brain Parenchyma and the Clearance of Interstitial Solutes, Including Amyloid β
Open accessAbstract
Cerebrospinal fluid flows through channels around brain blood vessels that are bounded by astrocytic endfeet, mediated by water transport through aquaporin-4.
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The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“the glymphatic system, a CSF–interstitial fluid transport pathway, supported by perivascular spaces, astrocytic water channels, vascular pulsatility, and meningeal lymphatic drainage, that contributes to waste clearance and fluid homeostasis in the brain (Iliff et al., 2012).”
From 40 Years of diffusion MRI in the brain: From history to emerging frontiers (2026) · cites this paper as Iliff et al., 2012
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Deletion of AQP4 channels reduces clearance of exogenous Aβ by 65%”
From Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain (2013) · cites this paper as [12]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The glymphatic system uses the perivascular spaces as low-resistance routes for fast influx of CSF into deep brain regions1.”
From Norepinephrine-mediated slow vasomotion drives glymphatic clearance during sleep (2025) · cites this paper as [1]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The glymphatic system is a highly organized, brain-wide network for cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) transport that exports protein waste, including amyloid and tau1–3.”
From Norepinephrine-mediated slow vasomotion drives glymphatic clearance during sleep (2025) · cites this paper as [1]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Previous animal studies have shown communication between the subarachnoid cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) space and perivascular compartments of the brain (6-10) and spinal cord (11).”
From Brain-wide glymphatic enhancement and clearance in humans assessed with MRI. (2018) · cites this paper as [7]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In 2012, a brain-wide pathway for convective transport of waste solutes from the brain was first described and denoted the glymphatic system (7).”
From Brain-wide glymphatic enhancement and clearance in humans assessed with MRI. (2018) · cites this paper as [7]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Impaired glymphatic function has been suggested to be instrumental in a range of brain diseases; this has been illustrated most in Alzheimer's dementia (7, 19, 20) but has also been shown to be relevant in posttraumatic encephalopathy (21), ageing (22), sleep (23, 24), depression (20), and exercise (25).”
From Brain-wide glymphatic enhancement and clearance in humans assessed with MRI. (2018) · cites this paper as [7]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Moreover, animal studies report diverging findings regarding the sites of perivascular brain influx and efflux and direction of perivascular flow (7, 15, 16).”
From Brain-wide glymphatic enhancement and clearance in humans assessed with MRI. (2018) · cites this paper as [7]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“and may thus be a determining factor for parenchymal tracer enrichment more than clearance, which has rather been proposed to be dependent on convective forces and AQP4 status in the glymphatic system (7).”
From Brain-wide glymphatic enhancement and clearance in humans assessed with MRI. (2018) · cites this paper as [7]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Clearance of MRI contrast agents, such as gadobutrol, has previously been proposed to potentially resemble clearance of brain macromolecules with similar properties (14), including amyloidβ (7) and tau (21, 66).”
From Brain-wide glymphatic enhancement and clearance in humans assessed with MRI. (2018) · cites this paper as [7]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“For example, studies using injection of fluorescent tracers into cisterna magna of mice have suggested that paravascular circulation occurs via CSF convective flow through the ECS from the para-arterial to the paravenous spaces, which is regulated by AQP4 water channels on astrocytes, and therefore the system was renamed as the 'glymphatic' system (276, 293).”
From Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back (2019) · cites this paper as [276]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) recirculates through the brain, interchanging with interstitial fluid (ISF) and removing interstitial proteins, including Aβ (12, 13).”
From Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain (2013) · cites this paper as [12]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Influx of CSF is in part driven by arterial pulse waves that propel the movement of CSF inward along periarterial spaces (12).”
From Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain (2013) · cites this paper as [12]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“suggesting that convective movement of ISF is a substantial contributor to the removal of interstitial waste products and other products of cellular activity (12).”
From Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain (2013) · cites this paper as [12]
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“This mechanism is how curbing PCSK9 activity provides protection against the vascular aspects of Alzheimer’s pathology [33,77].”
From The Roles of PCSK9 in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Systematic Review of Clinical, Genetic, and Preclinical Evidence (2025) · cites this paper as [77]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Since it is difficult to control when rodents enter natural sleep, anesthesia is commonly used as a proxy for sleep1,24,99,100.”
From Norepinephrine-mediated slow vasomotion drives glymphatic clearance during sleep (2025) · cites this paper as [1]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“No statistical methods were used to predetermine sample sizes but our sample sizes are similar to those reported in previous publications3,4,12.”
From Brain clearance is reduced during sleep and anesthesia (2024) · cites this paper as [4]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“The glymphatic system is a highly organized cerebrospinal fluid transport system that shares several key functions with the lymphatic vessels of peripheral tissues, including the export of excess interstitial fluid and proteins”
From Glymphatic failure as a final common pathway to dementia (2020) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“fluid transport through the glymphatic system is directionally polarized, with influx along penetrating arteries, fluid entry into the neuropil supported by AQP4, and efflux along the peri-venous spaces, as well as along the cranial and spinal nerves (24, 32–34).”
From Glymphatic failure as a final common pathway to dementia (2020) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“Deletion of AQP4 channels reduces both the influx of CSF tracers and the efflux of solutes from the neuropil (24, 30, 31).”
From Glymphatic failure as a final common pathway to dementia (2020) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“The polarized expression of the water channel, AQP4, in the vascular endfeet of astrocytes facilitates glymphatic fluid transport and amyloid-ß export in rodents (24, 30)(Fig. 1).”
From Glymphatic failure as a final common pathway to dementia (2020) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“The motion of the brain is locally supplemented by the pulsatility of the penetrating arteries, as they enter the brain from the CSF-filled subarachnoid space, thereby driving CSF into the neuropil along the periarteral spaces (24).”
From Glymphatic failure as a final common pathway to dementia (2020) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“The expression of aquaporin-4 (AQP4) in astrocytes significantly influences the transport and clearance functions of the glymphatic system.155”
From Antiageing strategy for neurodegenerative diseases: from mechanisms to clinical advances (2025) · cites this paper as [155]
In the citing paper
“It has previously been shown that neurotoxic molecules such as amyloid-β and tau are cleared from brain tissue along paravenous pathways (the glymphatic system)20”
From Cerebrospinal fluid tracer efflux to parasagittal dura in humans (2020) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Molecules from 0.8 to 70 kDa have been shown to penetrate the glia limitans to varying degrees, whereas molecules from 150 to 2000 kDa are confined within the perivascular space (18, 39, 40).”
From The anatomy and immunology of vasculature in the central nervous system (2019) · cites this paper as [40]
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Citations
Cites
Diffusion in Brain Extracellular Space
Syková, E., & Nicholson, C. (2008) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00027.2007 · Cited by 1,481 · cited 5×
“1 nm, respectively (9)] pass the endfeet in a size- and structure-dependent manner (Fig.”
BackgroundInfluentialNielsen, S. M., Nagelhus, E. A., Amiry-Moghaddam, M. R., Bourque, C. W., Agre, P. C., & Ottersen, O. P. (1997) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.17-01-00171.1997 · Cited by 1,440
Self-citationReal-time imaging reveals the single steps of brain metastasis formation.
Kienast, Y., von Baumgarten, L., Fuhrmann, M., Klinkert, W. E. F., Goldbrunner, R., Herms, J., & Winkler, F. (2010) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.2072 · Cited by 1,138
Astrocyte-mediated control of cerebral blood flow
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Self-citationThree or more routes for leukocyte migration into the central nervous system
Ransohoff, R. M., Kivisäkk, P., & Kidd, G. (2003) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri1130 · Cited by 1,052 · cited 1×
“Both lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells in the subarachnoid CSF (49) may detect interstitial antigens delivered to the CSF by paravenous bulk outflow.”
BackgroundInterstitial-lymphatic mechanisms in the control of extracellular fluid volume
Aukland, K., & Reed, R. K. (1993) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.1993.73.1.1 · Cited by 938 · cited 1×
“The lymphatic vasculature represents a second circulation, parallel to the blood vasculature, that accounts for the clearance of interstitial fluid (ISF) with its constituent proteins and other solutes not absorbed across postcapillary venules (1, 2).”
BackgroundLehre, K. P., Levy, L., Ottersen, O. P., Storm‐Mathisen, J., & Danbolt, N. C. (1995) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.15-03-01835.1995 · Cited by 912
Mathiisen, T. M., Lehre, K. P., Danbolt, N. C., & Ottersen, O. (2010) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.20990 · Cited by 893
Neuronal activity regulates the regional vulnerability to amyloid-β deposition
Bero, A. W., Yan, P., Roh, J. H., Cirrito, J. R., Stewart, F. R., Raichle, M. E., Lee, J.-M., & Holtzman, D. M. (2011) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.2801 · Cited by 880 · cited 1×
“AQP4 facilitates the para-vascular clearance of interstitial amyloid b Soluble amyloid b (Ab) is present in the interstitium of the healthy young brain, yet interstitial Ab levels are correlated with amyloid plaque burden (18).”
BackgroundEvidence for bulk flow of brain interstitial fluid: significance for physiology and pathology
Abbott, N. J. (2004) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2003.11.006 · Cited by 786 · cited 5×
“Interstitial solutes have been thought to be cleared to the CSF by the convective bulk flow of ISF, which courses diffusely through brain tissue, rather than through an anatomically or functionally discrete structure (3, 4, 9).”
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Zhang, E., Wan, X., Yang, L., Wang, D., Chen, Z., Chen, Y., Liu, M., Zhang, G., Wu, J., Han, H., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.00707 · Cited by 66
Guerra, M. M., González, C., Caprile, T., Jara, M., Vío, K., Muñoz, R. I., Rodríguez, S., & Rodríguez, E. M. (2015) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2015.00480 · Cited by 65
Ulv Larsen, S. M., Landolt, H.-P., Berger, W., Nedergaard, M., Knudsen, G. M., & Holst, S. C. (2020) · PLOS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000623 · Cited by 60
Self-citationCentral and peripheral circadian clocks and their role in Alzheimer's disease
Chauhan, R., Chen, K.-F., Kent, B. A., & Crowther, D. C. (2017) · Disease Models & Mechanisms · doi:10.1242/dmm.030627 · Cited by 58
“Similar changes in the human brain during sleep would favour the bulk flow of CSF and ISF through the perivascular (Rennels et al., 1985) and glymphatic drainage channels (Iliff et al., 2012; Kress et al., 2015; TarasoffConway et al., 2015).”
BackgroundAquaporin-4 and Cognitive Disorders
Wang, Y., Huang, C., Guo, Q., & Chu, H. (2022) · Aging and disease · doi:10.14336/ad.2021.0731 · Cited by 55
Shively, S. B., Edgerton, S. L., Iacono, D., Purohit, D. P., Qu, B.-X., Haroutunian, V., Davis, K. L., Diaz-Arrastia, R., & Perl, D. P. (2017) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-016-1649-7 · Cited by 52
Chronic sleep fragmentation impairs brain interstitial clearance in young wildtype mice
Deng, S., Hu, Y., Chen, S., Xue, Y., Yao, D., Sun, Q., Nedergaard, M., Wang, W., & Ding, F. (2024) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1177/0271678x241230188 · Cited by 52
Self-citationA human brain vascular atlas reveals diverse cell mediators of Alzheimer’s disease risk
Yang, A. C., Vest, R. T., Kern, F., Lee, D. P., Maat, C. A., Losada, P. M., Chen, M. B., Agam, M., Schaum, N., Khoury, N., et al. (2021) · doi:10.1101/2021.04.26.441262 · Cited by 48
Yadav, D. B., Maloney, J. A., Wildsmith, K. R., Fuji, R. N., Meilandt, W. J., Solanoy, H., Lu, Y., Peng, K., Wilson, B., Chan, P., et al. (2017) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.14021 · Cited by 49
Mullane, K., & Williams, M. (2018) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2018.09.027 · Cited by 32
Beliën, J., Swinnen, S., D’hondt, R., Verdú de Juan, L., Dedoncker, N., Matthys, P., Bauer, J., Vens, C., Moylett, S., & Dubois, B. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-49312-y · Cited by 32
“Conceivably, interstitial CHIT1 consequently ends up in the CSF via the glia-lymphatic or ‘ glymphatic ’ system in which CSF mixes with the interstitial fl uid to wash away extracellular waste, as has been described for β -amyloid 55,56 .”
Reiter, R. J., Sharma, R., Rosales-Corral, S., de Mange, J., Phillips, W. T., Tan, D. X., & Bitar, R. D. (2022) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2022.03.025 · Cited by 31
Dai, Z., Yang, Z., Chen, X., Zheng, W., Zhuang, Z., Liao, Y., Li, M., Chen, S., Lin, D., Wu, X., et al. (2023) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhad086 · Cited by 30
Self-citationTarawneh, R. (2023) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom13050830 · Cited by 29
“Loss of astrocytic AQP4 in AD is associated with impaired Aβ clearance [98].”
BackgroundWostyn, P., & De Deyn, P. P. (2018) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2018.07.007 · Cited by 27
Ferguson, C. M., Godinho, B. M. D. C., Alterman, J. F., Coles, A. H., Hassler, M., Echeverria, D., Gilbert, J. W., Knox, E. G., Caiazzi, J., Haraszti, R. A., et al. (2021) · JCI Insight · doi:10.1172/jci.insight.152203 · Cited by 27
“CSF facilitates exchange through multiple flow routes — it travels down the spinal cord, and it enters the glymphatic space and the subarachnoid space (29, 30).”
High-density lipoprotein-related cholesterol metabolism in Alzheimer's disease
Pedrini, S., Chatterjee, P., Hone, E., & Martins, R. N. (2021) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15170 · Cited by 22
“The presence of Aquaporin-4 on the astrocytic end feet facilitates the CSF/ISF exchange into the brain parenchyma leading towards the diffusion of particles into the brain (Iliff et al., 2012).”
BackgroundNewton, P., the BIOCARD Research Team, Tchounguen, J., Pettigrew, C., Lim, C., Lin, Z., Lu, H., Moghekar, A., Albert, M., & Soldan, A. (2023) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-220846 · Cited by 23
Van den Bulcke, L., Peeters, A.-M., Heremans, E., Davidoff, H., Borzée, P., De Vos, M., Emsell, L., Van den Stock, J., De Roo, M., Tournoy, J., et al. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine · doi:10.5664/jcsm.10778 · Cited by 23
Meprin β: A novel regulator of blood–brain barrier integrity
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“paracellular passage of substances from the blood in the CNS.(33) Investigating the CSF of mice lacking Mep1b, we found a significant decrease in IgG levels by approxi-”
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Verkhratsky, A., Parpura, V., Scuderi, C., & Li, B. (2021) · Advances in Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77375-5_13 · Cited by 19
The Extracellular and Perivascular Spaces of the Brain
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The brain washing system in sepsis-associated encephalopathy
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“The structure of the glymphatic system The glymphatic system represents a sophisticated CSF transport network organized through three principal pathways: para-arterial influx routes, paravenous clearance conduits, and astrocytic AQP4-mediated transpar-enchymal exchange [7, 24, 48, 49].”
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“This mechanism is how curbing PCSK9 activity provides protection against the vascular aspects of Alzheimer’s pathology [33,77].”
Sorets, A., Schwensen, K., Francini, N., Kjar, A., Abdulrahman, A., Shostak, A., Katdare, K., Schoch, K., Cowell, R., Park, J., et al. (2024) · doi:10.1101/2024.06.09.598079 · Cited by 4
“11,14 Intriguingly, multiple orthogonal studies suggest that the striatum receives the most perivascular CSF flow, highlighting the potential of this transport pathway for delivery of biologics to deep brain structures.”
Yin, H., Lu, Z., Deng, Y., Tian, X., & Gong, Q. (2026) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2025.102952 · Cited by 6
Le Bihan, D. (2026) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2026.1858655 · Cited by 1
“…into mesoscale diffusional responses and finally into regional material properties, with vascular pulsatility and sleep state acting as modulators of the entire system (O’Donnell et al., 2011; Araya et al., 2014; Iliff et al., 2012; Iliff et al., 2013; Ding et al., 2025; Naganawa et al., 2024).”
40 Years of diffusion MRI in the brain: From history to emerging frontiers
Le Bihan, D. (2026) · Imaging Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/imag.a.1365
“8) through the glymphatic system, a CSF– interstitial fluid transport pathway, supported by perivascular spaces, astrocytic water channels, vascular pulsatility, and meningeal lymphatic drainage, that contributes to waste clearance and fluid homeostasis in the brain ( Iliff et al., 2012).”
Dichgans, M., & Leys, D. (2017) · Circulation Research · doi:10.1161/circresaha.116.308426 · Cited by 581
Metadata
- Authors
- Iliff, J. J., Wang, M., Liao, Y., Plogg, B. A., Peng, W., Gundersen, G. A., Benveniste, H., Vates, G. E., Deane, R., Goldman, S. A., Nagelhus, E. A., & Nedergaard, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Rochester Medicine (US)
- University of Oslo (NO)
- Stony Brook University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Iliff, Jeffrey J.
- Nedergaard, Maiken
- ORCID
- Venue
- Science Translational Medicine
- Published
- 2012-08-15
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 147
- Pages
- 147ra111-147ra111
- ISSN
- 1946-6234 (ISSN-L)
- 1946-6242
- PMC
- PMC3551275
- OpenAlex
- W2167183660
- Cited by
- 5,824
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 871 · 2025: 767 · 2024: 669 · 2023: 605 · 2022: 546 · 2021: 456 · 2020: 400 · 2019: 358 · 2018: 281 · 2017: 279 · 2016: 203 · 2015: 160 · 2014: 128 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 50.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Science Translational Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS078304, R01NS078167, R01NS075177, R01NS075345, R01NS052534)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Cerebrospinal fluid and hydrocephalus
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Ion Transport and Channel Regulation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Barrier Structure and Function Studies
- Keywords
- cerebrospinal fluid flow, interstitial fluid clearance, amyloid-beta clearance, aquaporin-4, astrocytes, Alzheimer's disease, neurodegeneration
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Astrocytes, Biological Transport, Brain, Cerebral Ventricles, Cerebrospinal Fluid, Male, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Water, Amyloid beta-Peptides, Imaging, Three-Dimensional, Microscopy, Fluorescence, Multiphoton, Extracellular Fluid, Mice, Aquaporin 4
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