Cited by 1,655Long-Term Effects of COVID-19COVID-19 Clinical Research StudiesSARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 34 of the 34 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Long covid—mechanisms, risk factors, and management

Crook, Harry, Raza, Sanara, Nowell, Joseph, Young, Megan, Edison, Paul·2021·BMJ

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Abstract

Since its emergence in Wuhan, China, covid-19 has spread and had a profound effect on the lives and health of people around the globe. As of 4 July 2021, more than 183 million confirmed cases of covid-19 had been recorded worldwide, and 3.97 million deaths. Recent evidence has shown that a range of persistent symptoms can remain long after the acute SARS-CoV-2 infection, and this condition is now coined long covid by recognized research institutes. Studies have shown that long covid can affect the whole spectrum of people with covid-19, from those with very mild acute disease to the most severe forms. Like acute covid-19, long covid can involve multiple organs and can affect many systems including, but not limited to, the respiratory, cardiovascular, neurological, gastrointestinal, and musculoskeletal systems. The symptoms of long covid include fatigue, dyspnea, cardiac abnormalities, cognitive impairment, sleep disturbances, symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, muscle pain, concentration problems, and headache. This review summarizes studies of the long term effects of covid-19 in hospitalized and non-hospitalized patients and describes the persistent symptoms they endure. Risk factors for acute covid-19 and long covid and possible therapeutic options are also discussed.

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1 retracted

RETRACTED: 6-month consequences of COVID-19 in patients discharged from hospital: a cohort study
Huang, C., Huang, L., Wang, Y., Li, X., Ren, L., Gu, X., Kang, L., Guo, L., Liu, M., Zhou, X., et al. (2021) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(20)32656-8 · Cited by 4,084
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Effect of Surgical Masks and N95 Respirators on Anxiety
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“46,47 More specifically, these symptoms included headache(s), fatigue, dyspnea, palpitations, skin rash, muscle pain, anxiety, depression, and sleeplessness.”
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“The explanations for why some people develop Long COVID are still incipient, although they are associated with increased age, the number and severity of signs and symptoms during the acute phase of COVID-19, female sex, smoking, alcoholism, and prior diagnosis of chronic diseases (6–8).”
BackgroundInfluential
Long-term manifestations of COVID-19 in athletes: a narrative review
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“Studies have shown that COVID-19 infection is associated with persistent inflammation associated with multiple organs in the human body [4, 5], while inflammatory factors are also associated with other post-infection syndromes, such as post-infectious fatigue syndrome [6, 7], which pose a…”
Background
Calcium channel blockers may reduce the development of long COVID in females
Ozawa, T., Kimura, R., Terai, H., Takemura, R., Namkoong, H., Kondo, M., Fukuda, K., Yagi, K., Asakura, T., Masaki, K., et al. (2023) · Hypertension Research · doi:10.1038/s41440-023-01501-w · Cited by 3
“Severe COVID-19 symptoms during the acute phase are known risk factors for long COVID [29].”
Long COVID Among Wisconsin Workers in the Workers’ Compensation System
Modji, K. K. S., McCoy, K. E., Creswell, P. D., Morris, C. R., & Tomasallo, C. D. (2023) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000003018 · Cited by 7
A Critical Analysis of Financial Management: An Interconnected Framework for Maximizing Corporate Finances
Shaheen, R. (2023) · Saudi Journal of Business and Management Studies · doi:10.36348/sjbms.2023.v08i10.002 · Cited by 3
“It is worth noting that any action undertaken in the realm of financial management has an immediate effect on the financial position and assets of the organization [3-4].”
Background
COVID-19 infection and a repeated false positivity effect in HIV testing: A case report
Balasubramanian, A., Singh, D., & Lahey, T. P. (2023) · IDCases · doi:10.1016/j.idcr.2023.e01908 · Cited by 3
“Given emerging evidence of COVID-related immune disruptions [17 – 19], durable false positivity of HIV tests (and tests for other pathogens) is plausible.”
Background
Impact of COVID-19 Infection on Work Functioning in Japanese Workers: A Prospective Cohort Study
Okawara, M., Hirashima, K., Igarashi, Y., Mafune, K., Muramatsu, K., Nagata, T., Tsuji, M., Ogami, A., Fujino, Y., Ogami, A., et al. (2023) · Safety and Health at Work · doi:10.1016/j.shaw.2023.10.004 · Cited by 3
“Some individuals may experience enduring symptoms such as fatigue and cognitive dysfunction post-acute SARS-CoV-2 infection [3,4].”
Background
Exploring the mechanisms of long COVID: Insights from computational analysis of SARS‐CoV‐2 gene expression and symptom associations
Das, S., & Kumar, S. (2023) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.29077 · Cited by 10
“chest pain (angina pectoris), and other residual symptoms due to residual viral remnants according to cohort studies.(2) The development of postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) is an example of autonomic dysfunction.”
BackgroundInfluential
Effectiveness of ReCOVery APP to Improve the Quality of Life of Long COVID Patients: A 6‐Month Follow‐Up Randomized Clinical Trial
León-Herrera, S., Samper-Pardo, M., Oliván‐Blázquez, B., Botaya, R. M., Casado‐Vicente, V., Sánchez‐Recio, R., & Sánchez-Arizcuren, R. (2025) · International Journal of Clinical Practice · doi:10.1155/ijcp/7692776 · Cited by 2
“Age Perceived age 48,28 (9,26) 58,10 (14,69) 48,25 (10,36) 59,69 (15,02) 48,31 (8,01) 56,38 (14,27) 0,963 0,260 Marital status (%) Married or in couple Single, separated, widowed 70 (70%) 30 (30%) 35 (67,3%) 17 (32,7%) 35 (72,9%) 13 (27,1%) 0,541”
Analyzing the Interplay between COVID-19 Viral Load, Inflammatory Markers, and Lymphocyte Subpopulations on the Development of Long COVID
Rivera-Cavazos, A., Luviano-García, J. A., Garza‐Silva, A., Morales-Rodríguez, D. P., Kuri-Ayache, M., Sanz‐Sánchez, M. Á., Santos-Macías, J. E., Romero-Ibarguengoitia, M. E., & González‐Cantú, A. (2023) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms11092241 · Cited by 3
“In the literature, it is described that the main risk factors for presenting long COVID are being female, a history of hypertension, obesity, having a psychiatric condition, and being immunosuppressed, while age was reported not to be totally related with the presence of long COVID [2,28,29].”
Infant respiratory syncytial virus infection and childhood asthma: A shift in the paradigm?
Rosas‐Salazar, C., & Hartert, T. V. (2023) · Clinical and Translational Medicine · doi:10.1002/ctm2.1414 · Cited by 4
A Multidisciplinary Rehabilitation Approach to Chronic Pain Patients in the Post-COVID-19 Era.
Navani, A. (2023) · Pain Physician · doi:10.36076/ppj.2023.26.457 · Cited by 3
“(8,9).”
Background
Simulation Modeling for Health Care Operations: User-centered Design Needed!
Cornet, V. P., Charles, M., & Toscos, T. (2023) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/21695067231192438 · Cited by 2
“The ripple effect of COVID-19 could be felt by many, e.g., through widespread job losses (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022), long-COVID sequelae (Crook et al., 2021), and visitor restrictions at hospitals leaving patients dying without their loved ones (Hugelius et al., 2021).”
Background
Increase in Chronic Medications and Polypharmacy—The Multifaceted Burden of COVID-19 Disease on Public Health Care
Gallo, A., Covino, M., Lipari, A., Pellegrino, S., Ibba, F., Agnitelli, M. C., Tosato, M., Landi, F., & Montalto, M. (2023) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm13091321 · Cited by 3
“…disease 19 ( Recently the World Health Organization agreed to deﬁning “Long-COVID” (or Post-COVID condition) as the continuation or development of new symptoms three months after the initial SARS-CoV-2 infection, with these symptoms lasting for at least two months with no other explanation [4].”
“We don't really do doctors.” messages from people diagnosed with occupational leptospirosis for medical professionals on infection, hospitalisation, and long-term effects
Prinsen, G., Baker, M., Benschop, J., Collins-Emerson, J., Douwes, J., Fayaz, A., Littlejohn, S., Nisa, S., Quin, T., & Yeung, P. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19303 · Cited by 3
Data Analytics and Prediction of Long COVID Cases with Fuzzy Logic
Dotzlaw, K., Dotzlaw, R., Leung, C. K., Pazdor, A. G. M., Szturm, S., & Tan, D. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Fuzzy Systems · doi:10.1109/fuzz52849.2023.10309753 · Cited by 3
“Crook et al. [29] stated that long COVID “can affect people with very mild acute disease as well as those with the most serious illness”.”
Background
Variant-specific Symptoms After COVID-19: A Hospital-based Study in Hiroshima
Abe, K., Sugiyama, A., Ito, N., Miwata, K., Kitahara, Y., Okimoto, M., Mirzaev, U. K., Kurisu, A., Akita, T., Ko, K., et al. (2023) · Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.2188/jea.je20230103 · Cited by 6
Prevalence and factors of COVID-19 vaccine refusal among solid cancer patients in China: an application of the health belief model
Xie, Z., Lau, J., Liang, Y.-K., Ouyang, Q., Chen, J., Lin, S.-Y., Yao, K., Hu, X., Lin, H.-Y., Yu, Y.-Q., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1236376 · Cited by 3
Periodontal Disease Markers among Patients with Long COVID: A Case-control Study
Louisa, M., Anggraini, W., Putranto, R. A., Komala, O., & de'Angelis, N. (2023) · Open Dentistry Journal · doi:10.2174/18742106-v17-230718-2023-53 · Cited by 3
Does Long COVID Exist in Sub-Saharan Africa?
Mehta, N., Ndhlovu, C. E., & Makadzange, T. (2023) · COVID · doi:10.3390/covid3070074 · Cited by 3
QUALITY OF LIFE OF A PATIENT WITH PERSISTENT COMPLICATIONS AFTER SARS-COV-2 INFECTION REQUIRING URGENT SURGICAL INTERVENTION – ENDARTERECTOMY WITH EMERGENCY ANGIOPLASTY OF AN INFLAMED, BLEEDING RIGHT INTERNAL CAROTIDARTERY (RICA) USING THE TRANS-CAROTID ARTERY REVASCULARIZATION(TCAR)
Hydzik, A., Opławski, M., Trystuła, M., & Pąchalska, M. (2023) · Acta Neuropsychologica · doi:10.5604/01.3001.0053.7564 · Cited by 3
“Patients with long COVID may experience multiple pain conditions (van Kessel et al. 2022, Carfì et al. 2020; Proal et al. 2021; Crook et al. 2021).”
Background
Long-Term Impacts of COVID-19 Pneumonia on Quality of Life: A Single Institutional Pilot Study
Deesomchok, A., Liwsrisakun, C., Chaiwong, W., Pothirat, C., Duangjit, P., Bumroongkit, C., Theerakittikul, T., Limsukon, A., Tajarernmuang, P., Trongtrakul, K., et al. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11131963 · Cited by 3
“As described earlier that COVID-19 is a systemic disease, chronic inflammation of the brain and neuromuscular junctions, sarcolemma damage and fiber atrophy and damage, and psychosocial factors might contribute to post-COVID-19 fatigue [7].”
Background
Rôle des facteurs psychologiques dans l’affection post-COVID-19
Lemogne, C., & Ranque, B. (2023) · Bulletin de l Académie Nationale de Médecine · doi:10.1016/j.banm.2023.05.001 · Cited by 2
“[2] Crook H, Raza S, Nowell J, Young M, Edison P.”
Long-term outcome of COVID-19 patients treated with helmet noninvasive ventilation vs. high-flow nasal oxygen: a randomized trial
Michi, T., Mattana, C., Menga, L. S., Bocci, M., Cesarano, M., Rosà, T., Gualano, M., Montomoli, J., Spadaro, S., Tosato, M., et al. (2023) · Journal of Intensive Care · doi:10.1186/s40560-023-00669-0 · Cited by 3
Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome and musculoskeletal manifestations: an overview
Maniçoba, N. B., Nogueira, I., Carlos, P. H. D. C., Rocha, R. S. D. C., Lima, M. P. P., Cordeiro, R., & de Oliveira, J. D. (2023) · Research, Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v12i4.41092 · Cited by 3
“Up to 60% of patients experience chronic fatigue after contracting COVID-19 (Crook et al. 2021).”
Background
PRE-COVID-19 PHYSICAL ACTIVITY STATUS DOES NOT PROTECT AGAINST REDUCTIONS IN POST-COVID-19 SYMPTOMS: A CORRELATION RELATIVISTIC ANALYSIS DURING THE LOCKDOWN
Owen, R., Faghy, M. A., Ashton, R. E. M., & Ferraro, F. (2023) · European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science · doi:10.46827/ejpe.v9i6.4767 · Cited by 3
“…but acute COVID-19 infection severity, cardio-respiratory fitness, physical activity (PA), age, and co-morbidities have been suggested, but not confirmed predictors of long-standing symptom profiles (Blomberg et al., 2021; Crook et al., 2021; Humphreys et al., 2020; Prescott & Girard, 2020).”
Revisiting the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Insight into Long-Term Post-COVID Complications and Repurposing of Drugs
Majumder, R., Ghosh, S., Singh, M. K., Das, A., Chowdhury, S. R., Saha, A., & Saha, R. P. (2023) · COVID · doi:10.3390/covid3040037 · Cited by 3
Absence of self-reported neuropsychiatric and somatic symptoms after Omicron variant SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infections
Woo, M. S., Mayer, C., Brehm, T. T., Andersen, G., Weigel, A., Löwe, B., Lohse, A. W., Addo, M. M., Gerloff, C. P., Knobloch, J. K. ‐., et al. (2023) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcad092 · Cited by 4
COVID-19 as a polymorphic inflammatory spectrum of diseases: a review with focus on the brain
Tang, S. W., Helmeste, D. M., & Leonard, B. E. (2023) · Acta Neuropsychiatrica · doi:10.1017/neu.2023.17 · Cited by 3
“…symptoms now commonly named as ‘ Long COVID ’ , which seemed to be unrelated to the severity of the acute COVID-19 infection (Asadi-Pooya et al ., 2021; Crook et al ., 2021; Fernández-de-Las-Pe ˜ nas et al ., 2021; Raveendran et al ., 2021; Sykes et al ., 2021; Yong, 2021; De Luca et al ., 2022).”
Background
Early Career Occupational Therapists’ Experiences during the COVID-19 Pandemic
VanPuymbrouck, L., & Friedman, C. (2023) · Occupational Therapy in Health Care · doi:10.1080/07380577.2023.2175291 · Cited by 3
“There is a growing body of literature examining the long-term impact of COVID-19 or long-COVID (Crook et al., 2021).”
An integrated strategy to identify COVID‐19 causal genes and characteristics represented by LRRC37A2
Zhu, Z., Chen, X., Wang, C., Zhang, S., Yu, R., Xie, Y., Yuan, S., Cheng, L., Shi, L., & Zhang, X. (2023) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.28585 · Cited by 3
“Furthermore, the effects of SARS‐CoV‐2 on patients with COVID‐19 need to observe over the long term, described as long COVID in post‐COVID‐19.(82) It will take time for the function of causal genes represented by LRRC37A2 on the target of COVID‐19 to verify in mice.”
Background
Clinical Outcome of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Patients with Primary Antibody Deficiencies
Milota, T., Smetanová, J., & Bartůňková, J. (2023) · Pathogens · doi:10.3390/pathogens12010109 · Cited by 2
Autoimmune Reaction Associated With Long COVID Syndrome and Cardiovascular Disease
Safronenka, A., Capcha, J. M., Webster, K., Buglo, E., Tamariz, L., Goldberger, J., & Shehadeh, L. (2022) · JACC Case Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jaccas.2022.09.014 · Cited by 3
Evaluation of physical and psychological status of health care workers infected with COVID-19 during a hospital outbreak in Japan
Kameyama, K., Mizutani, K., Miyake, Y., Iwase, T., Mizutani, Y., Yamada, M., Ito, Y., Ishihara, S., & Deguchi, T. (2022) · Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.jiac.2022.10.003 · Cited by 4
“The prevalence of long COVID in our cohort was relatively low compared to some previous reports [13,15].”
Result
Long COVID Among Moderate to Severe COVID-19 Cases in India During Second Wave of COVID-19
Yadav, A. K., Mukherjee, G., Vasisht, K., & Bobdey, S. (2022) · Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1177/10105395221124259 · Cited by 4
Common mental disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong: Age-related differences and implications for dementia risk
Kwok, J. O. T., Yan, R. W. K., Kwok, C. P. C., Cheng, G. W. H., Lin, C., Wong, B. H. C., Cheng, S., Lee, A. T. C., & LAM, L. C. W. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.909162 · Cited by 3
“Participants were asked to rate how often they felt (1) nervous, (2) hopeless (3) restless or fidgety, (4) so depressed that nothing could cheer them up, (5) that everything was an effort, and (6) worthless in the last 30 days.”
Background
Efficacy and Safety of ELOM-080 as Add-On Therapy in COVID-19 Patients with Acute Respiratory Insufficiency: Exploratory Data from the Prospective Placebo-Controlled COVARI Trial
Dreher, M., Grohé, C., Hartmann, N., Kanzler, S., Kraft, K., Sarrazin, C., Doll, M., Spiesshöfer, J., Steiner, S. F., Wöhrle, J., et al. (2022) · Advances in Therapy · doi:10.1007/s12325-022-02135-z · Cited by 3
“COVID symptoms may persist for several weeks after infection [3] and include fatigue, breathlessness and cough [4].”
Background
In Defense of Vaccine Mandates: An Argument from Consent Rights
Wilkenfeld, D. A., & Johnson, C. M. (2022) · Public Health Ethics · doi:10.1093/phe/phac005 · Cited by 4
“The risks of COVID-19 include unpleasant symptoms [Ma et al. (2021) recently provided a headline-generating result that 40% of cases are asymptomatic, but that suggests that 60% might not be], ‘Long COVID’ (Crook et al., 2021), hospitalization (Scobie et al., 2021, especially Figure 2) and death.”
A Custom-Made Electronic Dynamometer for Evaluation of Peak Ankle Torque after COVID-19
Drăgoi, I., Popescu, F., Petriţa, T., Alexa, F., Tatu, R., Bondor, C., Tatu, C., Bowling, F., Reeves, N., & Ionac, M. (2022) · Italian National Conference on Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22052073 · Cited by 3
“Acute and “long covid” effects on multiple organs and systems were stated, including the musculoskeletal system [17,18], with a negative impact on the skeletal muscle function even before the onset of other common symptoms [19].”
Background
Challenges and Management of Long COVID in Individuals with Hematological Illnesses
Yelin, D., & Margalit, I. (2022) · Acta Haematologica · doi:10.1159/000522437 · Cited by 2
Adolescent girls at the fore: UNICEF's Gender Action Plan
Rumble, L., Petroni, S., Abdi, O., Wijesekera, S., Wong, R., & Bah, C. (2022) · The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/s2352-4642(21)00397-7 · Cited by 3
Evaluating Post-COVID-19 Conditions
Caruso, G. M., Kertay, L., & Brigham, C. R. (2021) · AMA guides newsletter · doi:10.1001/amaguidesnewsletters.2021.novdec01 · Cited by 2
Approximate reciprocal relationship between two cause-specific hazard ratios in COVID-19 data with mutually exclusive events
Li, W.-T., Cetin, S., Ulgen, A., Cetin, M., Sivgin, H., & Yang, Y.-N. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.04.22.21255955 · Cited by 3
DAMAGE TO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN COVID-19
Filiuk, I. O., & Kalbus, O. (2024) · Bulletin of Problems Biology and Medicine · doi:10.29254/2077-4214-2024-2-173-144-149 · Cited by 3
“Кардіоемболія в разі ураження серця, спричи - неного вірусом, також може бути застосована до розвитку інсульту; ураження серця супроводжує ін - фекцію COVID-19 і є у 20-30% пацієнтів, стан яких по - требує госпіталізації [20, 21].”
Tea Polyphenols in the COVID-19 Era: Mechanistic Insights and Translational Challenges
Chang, H., Wu, C., Yeh, T., & Ko, W.-C. (2026) · Current Issues in Molecular Biology · doi:10.3390/cimb48040379 · Cited by 2
“Recent studies suggest that the sustained anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and endothelial-stabilizing properties of polyphenols may contribute to improved recovery outcomes and functional restoration in post-viral conditions [86,87].”
Shared Decision Making among Patients with Chronic Conditions in France: A Cross-Sectional Survey in the ComPaRe E-Cohort
Busnel, Y., Légaré, F., Moumjid, N., Panse, L., Testud, A., Tran, V.-T., & Haesebaert, J. (2026) · Medical Decision Making · doi:10.1177/0272989x251407617 · Cited by 2
“Despite their different medical underpinnings, these conditions share common challenges such as clinical uncertainty, notably due to misdiagnosis, 32,33 widespread impairing symptoms, 34,35 and the absence of effective curative treatments.”
Possible Involvement of Hypothalamic Dysfunction in Long COVID Patients Characterized by Delayed Response to Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone
Otsuka, Y., Soejima, Y., Nakano, Y., Suyama, A., Takase, R., Oguni, K., Masuda, Y., Omura, D., Sakurada, Y., Matsuda, Y., et al. (2026) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms27020832 · Cited by 2
“Its pathophysiology remains unclear and is believed to involve multiple interacting factors, including immune, autonomic, vascular, metabolic, and mitochondrial dysfunction [4–7].”
Symptom, functional, and medication overlap between long COVID and fibromyalgia
Hackshaw, K. V., Osuna-Diaz, M. M., Sebastian, K. R., Nuguri, S. M., Castellví, S. D. L., Yu, L., Mikulik, Z., Giusti, M. M., Brode, W. M., & RODRIGUEZ‐SAONA, L. E. (2026) · Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.clinsp.2026.101046 · Cited by 4
Biological Plausibility Between Long-COVID and Periodontal Disease Development or Progression
Andriankaja, O. M., Whiteheart, S. W., & Mattos, M. B. D. A. (2025) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines13123023 · Cited by 2
“…the elderly, women, a lower socio-economic status (SES), ethnic minorities, a history of severe symptoms during acute COVID-19, pre-existing psychiatric disorders, and pre-existing chronic comorbidities such as obesity, diabetes, asthma, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and hypertension [2,6,53,54].”
Fatigue Severity, Cognitive Strain, and Psychological Health in Long COVID: Untangling the Interconnected Aftermath from a Dedicated Long COVID Clinic
Bhargava, A., Patel, H., Szpunar, S. M., Sharma, M., Somero, M. S., Moudgil, S. S., & Saravolatz, L. D. (2025) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v17121551 · Cited by 2
“Chronic immune dysregulation, neuroinflammation, persistent stress, and autonomic imbalance have the capacity to disrupt neural circuits integral to the regulation of motivation, mood, and cognition at a physiological level [34,35].”
Change in healthcare utilization before and after COVID‐19 using data from 1.5 million individuals
Bygdell, M., Bulow, E., Larsson, S. B., Sigström, R., Li, H.-Q., Martikainen, J., Santosa, A., Lundberg-Morris, L., Leach, S., Gisslén, M., et al. (2025) · Journal of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1111/joim.70051 · Cited by 2
“…have been reported in patients experiencing long-term effects, including fatigue, dyspnoea, cardiovascular abnormalities (e.g., myocardial inﬂammation and postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome), cognitive dysfunction and mental health problems and olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions [8].”
Relation of pulmonary diffusing capacity changes to HRCT chest and V/Q SPECT findings at short-term and intermediate follow-up after COVID-19: a prospective cohort study (The secure study)
Helt, T. W., Thomsen, R. S., Christensen, J., Lund, T. K., Kalhauge, A., Rönsholt, F. F., Podlekavera, D., Arndal, E., Lebech, A., Berg, R. M. G., et al. (2025) · European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging · doi:10.1007/s00259-025-07598-0 · Cited by 2
Resiliência Cardiopulmonar em Indivíduos Altamente Ativos: Análise de Testes de Esforço Cardiopulmonar Pré e Pós-Covid-19
Braga, F., Espinosa, G., Monteiro, A., Milani, M., Paiva, J., Milani, J., Franzoni, L., Stein, R., Cipriano, G., Gurgel, J., et al. (2025) · Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia · doi:10.36660/abc.20250094 · Cited by 2
Systematic review and meta-analysis of brain neuroimaging abnormalities in COVID-19 patients and survivors
Li, P., Ni, S., Lin, X., Ding, Z., Zeng, N., Zhao, Y., Mei, H., Chen, X., Gao, N., Wei, H., et al. (2025) · Psychoradiology · doi:10.1093/psyrad/kkaf030 · Cited by 2
Long COVID: Lung Pathophysiology and its Relationship with Cognitive Dysfunction
Staab, K. R., McIntosh, M. J., Puliyakote, A. K. K., Hahn, A. D., Alarab, N., Percy, J. L., Lanning, T., Theeler, J., Linkenmeyer, C., Wharff, C. J., et al. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-7464124/v1 · Cited by 2
“These symptoms are highly heterogeneous and affect multiple organ systems 1,2 .”
Prospects for the use of an original medicine based on hexapeptide succinate for organ protection in various diseases
Omarova, K., Pshenichcnaya, N., Gorelov, A., Shcherbakova, V., Zaslavskaya, K., Bely, P., & Taganov, A. V. (2025) · Pharmacy & Pharmacology · doi:10.19163/2307-9266-2025-13-5-338-349 · Cited by 2
Electro-acupuncture for long COVID neuropsychiatric symptoms: study protocol for a prospective, randomized sham-controlled, patient-assessor-blinded clinical trial
Wei, D., Chow, C.-W., Cheung, W. K. W., Yeung, W., Cao, P., Liong, C., Chen, H., Zhang, S., & Zhong, L. L. D. (2025) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2025.1620288 · Cited by 2
“Among the various symptoms triggered by long COVID, neuropsychiatric symptoms have garnered significant attention, including cognitive impairment (15–18), persistent fatigue, anxiety, and depression (10–14).”
Laser fabrication of Ti stent and facile MEMS flow sensor integration for implantable respiration monitoring
Farisi, M. A. A., Kawata, T., Hasegawa, Y., Zukri, M. N. M., Matsushima, M., Kawabe, T., & Shikida, M. (2025) · Sensors and Actuators A-Physical · doi:10.1016/j.sna.2025.117083 · Cited by 2
“High mortality rate caused by respiratory-related diseases further emphasized the importance of respiration monitoring during drug development [7, 8, 9].”
Multiorgan Involvement and Particularly Liver Injury in Long COVID: A Narrative Review
Florea, C.-E., Bălaș‐Maftei, B., Rotaru, A., Adudanii, P. L., Vieru, S., Grigoriu, M. G., Stoian, I. A., & Manciuc, C. D. (2025) · Life · doi:10.3390/life15081314 · Cited by 2
“In some cases, persistent dyspnea was reported more than 2 months after the initial illness [1].”
Influential
Long COVID in Elderly COPD Patients: Clinical Features, Pulmonary Function Decline, and Proteomic Insights
Li, S., Zhao, H., Zhang, M., Yuan, T., Chai, D., Shen, Z., Qin, C., Li, Y.-M., & Pan, M.-M. (2025) · International Journal of COPD · doi:10.2147/copd.s520300 · Cited by 2
“36,37 Multiple mechanisms can lead to post-COVID-19 fatigue, such as chronic inflammation of the brain and neuromuscular junctions, sarcolemma damage and skeletal muscle fiber atrophy.”
Balance rehabilitation and Long Covid syndrome: effectiveness of thermal water treatment vs. home-based program
Maccarone, M. C., Contessa, P., Passarotto, E., Regazzo, G., & Masiero, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences · doi:10.3389/fresc.2025.1588940 · Cited by 2
“Among patients with long COVID, symptoms of this type have also been reported (9 – 12).”
Evaluation of long-term changes in liver function and structure in patients exposed to SARS-CoV-2 infection: a prospective study.
Saifi, E., Faita, F., Nardin, M., Orizio, P., Arrigoni, A., Roccon, B. M., Accordini, B., Cecchinel, S., Poisa, P., Pelizzari, G., et al. (2025) · Clinics And Research in Hepatology and Gastroenterology · doi:10.1016/j.clinre.2025.102606 · Cited by 2
Autonomic Dysfunction and Low Cardio-Respiratory Fitness in Long-Term Post-COVID-19 Syndrome
Cherneva, R., Cherneva, Z., Youroukova, V., Kadiyska, T., Valev, D., Hayrula-Manaf, E., & Mitev, V. (2025) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines13051138 · Cited by 2
“…dysfunction, coagulopathy, tissue thrombosis and demyelination), immune sys-tem dysregulation (autoimmunity phenomena), abnormal tissue metabolism and oxygen utilization (chronic thrombosis, diminished blood supply or mitochondrial perturbations) and abnormal neurological signalling pathways [6].”
Cardio-Respiratory Fitness and Fatigue in Post-COVID-19 Syndrome—A Three-Year Update
Cherneva, R. V., Cherneva, Z. V., Youroukova, V., Kadiyska, T., Valev, D., Hayrula-Manaf, E. M., & Mitev, V. (2025) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines13051097 · Cited by 2
“Among them, most common are those responsible for the limited physical activity and exercise capacity, including fatigue, dyspnea, decreased muscle strength, muscle pain, neuro-cognitive problems, and sleep disturbances [10,11].”
Discordance between physical and cognitive health problems over one year after critical care: Insights from severe COVID-19 patients
Taniguchi, L. U., Gonçalves, N. G., Ferreira, N. V., Bertola, L., Avelino‐Silva, T. J., Dias, M. B., Hajjar, L. A., Filho, W. J., Suemoto, C. K., & Aliberti, M. J. R. (2025) · The journal of nutrition health & aging · doi:10.1016/j.jnha.2025.100547 · Cited by 2
“This has also been described after COVID-19 (when such long-term symptoms and problems are called “ long COVID ” ) [35].”
Risk prediction and early intervention strategies for persistent SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a retrospective cohort study
Zou, W.-L., Zhang, J., Li, Y., Cao, Y., Li, J.-X., Zhang, Z., Zhang, X., Song, C., Yang, R., Yan, Y.-X., et al. (2025) · BMC Pulmonary Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12890-025-03524-0 · Cited by 2
“Among patients with persistent infections, 85.5% presented with lung lesions [21].”
Influential
Post COVID symptom burden in patients supported with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: A prospective 2-year follow-up analysis
Cheaban, R., Rogge, A., Schaeper, K. E., Weinrautner, N., Kirschning, T., Bruenger, F., Serrano, M., Rudloff, M., Barndt, I., Wiemer, M., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Artificial Organs · doi:10.1177/03913988251322710 · Cited by 2
“7 Generally, evidence remains conflicting on whether patients that were more severely ill during the acute phase are more affected by long COVID symptoms, 24 but it is likely that the impairments observed in our cohort at least in part are driven or aggravated by post COVID factors.”
The health-related quality of life among stroke survivors with post-COVID conditions living in the United States
Hejazian, S. S., Vemuri, A. K., Sadr, A. V., Shahjouei, S., Bahrami, S., Abedi, V., & Zand, R. (2025) · Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2025.108246 · Cited by 2
Association between Hepatitis B virus infection and COVID-19: outcomes from clinical analysis and online survey from Beijing, China
Lin, F., Hao, S., Xiao, X., & Li, X.-G. (2024) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12879-024-10333-z · Cited by 2
Pharmacotherapy from Pre-COVID to Post-COVID: Longitudinal Trends and Predictive Indicators for Long COVID Symptoms
Baalbaki, N., Verbeek, S. T., Bogaard, H., Blankestijn, J., van den Brink, V. C., Cornelissen, M., Twisk, J., Golebski, K., & der Zee, A. M.-V. (2024) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines12122694 · Cited by 2
Long COVID: A Narrative Review and Meta-Analysis of Individual Symptom Frequencies
Atchley, R., Strasser, Z. H., Pant, D., Krisnamoorthy, A., Chibnik, L. B., & Karlson, E. W. (2024) · COVID · doi:10.3390/covid4100106 · Cited by 3
Audio-guided and mindfulness-based forest bathing in moderately affected Long/Post-COVID patients: A pre-post pilot-study
Torner, A. J., Meißner, A., Borchert, A., Immich, G., & Folta-Schoofs, K. (2024) · Mental Health & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.mhp.2024.200359 · Cited by 2
An appraisal of neuroimmune changes and potential benefits of Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment integration with therapeutic management of Post COVID-19 Condition: a literature review
Senigagliesi, F., Scialla, S., & Marasco, M. L. (2024) · International Journal of Osteopathic Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ijosm.2024.100737 · Cited by 2
Characteristics of Patients with Persistent COVID-19 Symptoms and Unscheduled Return Visits to a Centre for COVID-19 Evaluation
Nica, S., Nica, R. I., Nica, H. A., Miricescu, D., Abdelfatah, M. A. A. K., Șchiopu, O., Nedelcu, I. C., Cimponeriu, D., Ștefani, C., Stănescu-Spînu, I.-I., et al. (2024) · Diseases · doi:10.3390/diseases12090199 · Cited by 2

Authors: Crook, H., Raza, S., Nowell, J., Young, M., & Edison, P.
Affiliations: Imperial College London (GB)
Corresponding author: Edison, Paul
ORCID: Edison, Paul
Venue: BMJ
Publisher: BMJ
Published: 2021-07-26
Volume: 374
Pages: n1648
ISSN: 1756-1833 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1136/bmj.n1648
OpenAlex: W3186314395
Cited by: 1,655
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 85 · 2025: 205 · 2024: 329 · 2023: 508 · 2022: 466 · 2021: 60
FWCI: 43.57
Type: journal article
Language: en
Update notices: correction (2021-08-03)
Open access: closed
Licence: bmj.com/coronavirus/usage (tdm)
Locations: BMJ (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Long-Term Effects of COVID-19
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
Keywords: long COVID, SARS-CoV-2, persistent symptoms, fatigue, dyspnea, cardiac anomalies, cognitive impairment, sleep disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, myalgia, risk factors, treatment options
MeSH terms: Global Burden of Disease, COVID-19, Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome, Clinical Trials as Topic, Combined Modality Therapy, Humans, Risk Factors, Severity of Illness Index, Incidence, Practice Guidelines as Topic, Drug Repositioning

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