Cited by 1,655Long-Term Effects of COVID-19COVID-19 Clinical Research StudiesSARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research

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Long covid—mechanisms, risk factors, and management

Crook, Harry, Raza, Sanara, Nowell, Joseph, Young, Megan, Edison, Paul·2021·BMJ

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Abstract

Since its emergence in Wuhan, China, covid-19 has spread and had a profound effect on the lives and health of people around the globe. As of 4 July 2021, more than 183 million confirmed cases of covid-19 had been recorded worldwide, and 3.97 million deaths. Recent evidence has shown that a range of persistent symptoms can remain long after the acute SARS-CoV-2 infection, and this condition is now coined long covid by recognized research institutes. Studies have shown that long covid can affect the whole spectrum of people with covid-19, from those with very mild acute disease to the most severe forms. Like acute covid-19, long covid can involve multiple organs and can affect many systems including, but not limited to, the respiratory, cardiovascular, neurological, gastrointestinal, and musculoskeletal systems. The symptoms of long covid include fatigue, dyspnea, cardiac abnormalities, cognitive impairment, sleep disturbances, symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, muscle pain, concentration problems, and headache. This review summarizes studies of the long term effects of covid-19 in hospitalized and non-hospitalized patients and describes the persistent symptoms they endure. Risk factors for acute covid-19 and long covid and possible therapeutic options are also discussed.

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RETRACTED: 6-month consequences of COVID-19 in patients discharged from hospital: a cohort study
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“Reproduction with permission from the BMJ (Crook et al, 2021).11”
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Pastorello, A., Meyer, L., Coste, J., Davisse‐Paturet, C., de Lamballerie, X. N., Melchior, M., Novelli, S., Rahib, D., Bajos, N., Vuillermoz, C., et al. (2024) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwae174 · Cited by 8
Reduced Autonomic Function in Patients with Long-COVID-19 Syndrome is Mediated by Cardiorespiratory Fitness.
Oscoz-Ochandorena, S., Legarra-Gorgoñon, G., García-Alonso, Y., García-Alonso, N., Izquierdo, M., & Ramírez-Vélez, R. (2024) · Current problems in cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2024.102732 · Cited by 8
Global research status and trends of interactions between Traditional Chinese medicine and pulmonary fibrosis: A new dawn in treatment
Wei, B., Li, H., Wang, C., & Hu, J. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34592 · Cited by 8
“Since the global COVID-19 pandemic began in late 2019, PF has emerged as one of the long-term or post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 [3].”
Background
EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF COGNITIVE DYSFUNCTION, FATIGUE, AND SHORTNESS OF BREATH ON ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIFE AFTER COVID-19 INFECTION, UNTIL 1-YEAR FOLLOW-UP
Björkdahl, A., Gustafsson, M., Öhlén, H., Jarl, S., & Silva, I. (2024) · Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.2340/jrm.v56.35403 · Cited by 8
Next-generation sequencing of host genetics risk factors associated with COVID-19 severity and long-COVID in Colombian population
Angulo-Aguado, M., Carrillo-Martínez, J. C., Contreras-Bravo, N. C., Morel, A., Abaunza, K. P., Usaquén, W., Fonseca, D. J., & Ortega‐Recalde, O. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-57982-3 · Cited by 13
“This finding suggests that these acute-phase symptoms might serve as indicators of vascular, pulmonary, and central nervous system damage 99 .”
Background
Pulmonary diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide and nitric oxide after COVID‐19: A prospective cohort study (the SECURe study)
Lytzen, A. A., Helt, T. W., Christensen, J., Lund, T. K., Kalhauge, A., Rönsholt, F. F., Podlekavera, D., Arndal, E., Lebech, A., Hanel, B., et al. (2024) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep091757 · Cited by 10
“After the initial surge of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, it became evident that the pulmonary effects of the diseaseoftenlastedfarbeyondtheimmediatesevereacuterespiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection (Crook et al., 2021).”
Background
SARS-CoV-2 infection of endothelial cells, dependent on flow-induced ACE2 expression, drives hypercytokinemia in a vascularized microphysiological system
Hatch, C. J., Piombo, S. D., Fang, J. S., Gach, J. S., Ewald, M. L., Trigt, W. K. V., Coon, B. G., Tong, J. M., Forthal, D. N., & Hughes, C. C. W. (2024) · Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.3389/fcvm.2024.1360364 · Cited by 8
Gender differences in symptomatology, socio-demographic information and quality of life in Spanish population with long COVID condition: a cross-sectional study
Marcilla-Toribio, I., Moratalla-Cebrian, M. L., Notario‐Pacheco, B., López, M. Á. E., Morales-Cuenca, N., & Martínez-Andrés, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1355973 · Cited by 9
“This is a condition commonly referred to as long COVID (3, 4).”
Background
Processamento de linguagem natural não supervisionado na identificação de pacientes suspeitos de infecção por COVID-19
da Silva, R. P., Pollettini, J. T., & Pazin‐Filho, A. (2023) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311xpt243722 · Cited by 7
Blood T cell phenotypes correlate with fatigue severity in post-acute sequelae of COVID-19
Pink, I., Hennigs, J. K., Ruhl, L., Sauer, A., Boblitz, L., Huwe, M., Fuge, J., Falk, C. S., Pietschmann, T., de Zwaan, M., et al. (2023) · Infection · doi:10.1007/s15010-023-02114-8 · Cited by 7
“Identified risk factors for PACS include female sex, more severe acute disease, and a higher number of symptoms during COVID-19 [6–8].”
Background
Pulmonary Evaluation in Children with Post-COVID-19 Condition Respiratory Symptoms: A Prospective Cohort Study
Shmueli, E., Bar-On, O., Amir, B., Mei-Zahav, M., Stafler, P., Levine, H., Steuer, G., Rothschild, B., Tsviban, L., Amitai, N., et al. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm12216891 · Cited by 8
“Since coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has emerged, many studies have reported long-lasting symptoms after recovery, commonly known as ‘Long COVID’ or ‘post COVID-19 condition’) PCC(, the latter being the preferred terminology by the World Health Organization (WHO) [1].”
Background
The economics of aging with infectious and chronic diseases
Holger Strulik, B., & Grossmann, V. (2023) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2023.101319 · Cited by 8
Profiles of gut microbiota associated with clinical outcomes in patients with different stages of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Krasaewes, K., Chaiwarith, R., Chattipakorn, N., & Chattipakorn, S. (2023) · Life Science · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2023.122136 · Cited by 8
Experiences of people with long COVID: Symptoms, support strategies and the Long COVID Optimal Health Programme (LC‐OHP)
Al‐Jabr, H., Thompson, D. R., Castle, D. J., & Ski, C. F. (2023) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.13879 · Cited by 9
Long COVID Symptoms in Non-Hospitalised Patients: A Retrospective Study.
Oliveira, A. M., Coelho, C. F., Lourenço, F., Pinto, I. C., Atabão, J., Cabrita, R., Paraíso, R., Mesquita, E., Torrado, D., Marquez, P., et al. (2023) · Acta Médica Portuguesa · doi:10.20344/amp.19566 · Cited by 8
Case Report of Improvement in Long-COVID Symptoms in an Air Force Medic Treated With Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Using Electro-Magnetic Brain Pulse Technique
Zhang, J. X., & Zhang, J. (2023) · Military Medicine · doi:10.1093/milmed/usad182 · Cited by 8
Persistent immune abnormalities discriminate post-COVID syndrome from convalescence
Sbierski-Kind, J., Schlickeiser, S., Feldmann, S., Ober, V., Gruener, E., Pleimelding, C., Gilberg, L., Brand, I., Weigl, N., Ahmed, M. I. M., et al. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.05.02.23289345 · Cited by 8
The Cardiovascular Manifestations of COVID-19
Louis, D. W., Saad, M. S., Vijayakumar, S., Ilyas, S., Kokkirala, A. R., & Aronow, H. D. (2023) · Heart Failure Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.hfc.2022.08.001 · Cited by 9
“Quantitative findings supportive of multi-organ involvement have been documented, including abnormalities in liver enzymes, acute kidney injury, reductions in circulating T and B lymphocytes, and elevated troponin.(75) Long-term follow-up of patients with long-COVID is needed to better understand the consequences of C…”
A 30-Year-Old Woman with an 8-Week History of Anxiety, Depression, Insomnia, and Mild Cognitive Impairment Following COVID-19 Who Responded to Accelerated Bilateral Theta-Burst Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Over the Prefrontal Cortex
Chang, C.-H., Chen, S.-J., Chen, Y., & Tsai, H. (2023) · American Journal of Case Reports · doi:10.12659/ajcr.938732 · Cited by 10
“Third, psychosocial stress due to isolation and decreased physical activities may also contribute to psychiatric symptoms including depression and anxiety [3,22].”
ACE-2-like enzymatic activity is associated with immunoglobulin in COVID-19 patients
Song, Y., Myers, R., Mehl, F., Murphy, L., Brooks, B., Wilson, J. M., Kadl, A., Woodfolk, J. A., & Zeichner, S. L. (2024) · mBio · doi:10.1128/mbio.00541-24 · Cited by 8
“Several patients, including the 11 patients we selected for further study 522 (4, 5, 9, 11, 13, 15, 27, 43, 44, 47, 48) because they had among the top 20% of RFU 523”
Background
Is There a Relationship between Hyperventilation Syndrome and History of Acute SARS-CoV-2 Infection? A Cross-Sectional Study
Allado, E., Poussel, M., Hamroun, A., Moussu, A., Kneizeh, G., Hily, O., Temperelli, M., Corradi, C., Koch, A., Albuisson, É., et al. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10112154 · Cited by 8
COVID-19 and its treatments: lights and shadows on testicular function
Pallotti, F., Esteves, S., Faja, F., Buonacquisto, A., Conflitti, A. C., Hirsch, M., Lenzi, A., Paoli, D., & Lombardo, F. (2022) · Endocrine · doi:10.1007/s12020-022-03221-6 · Cited by 8
COVID-19 and rheumatic diseases: A mini-review
Roseti, L., & Grigolo, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.997876 · Cited by 12
Does covid-19 impair endogenous neurogenesis?
Kumaria, A., Noah, M. A., & Kirkman, M. A. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2022.09.006 · Cited by 9
Post COVID-19 burden: focus on the short-term condition
Yang, F., Pang, B., Jin, X., Chen, Z., Pang, W., Liu, Q., Zhang, J., & Zhang, B. (2022) · Acupuncture and Herbal Medicine · doi:10.1097/hm9.0000000000000036 · Cited by 8
“The incidence of multi-organ complications ranged from 10% to 80% among COVID-19 survivors[5].”
Background
A pilot clinical and radiographic study on the association between periodontitis and serious COVID‐19 infection
Gardelis, P., Zekeridou, A., Suh, N., Terrier, C. L., Stavropoulos, A., & Giannopoulou, C. (2022) · Clinical and Experimental Dental Research · doi:10.1002/cre2.610 · Cited by 6
“As shown also in a study by Crook et al. in 2021, patients hospitalized in ICU, but not only, often present a range of persistent symptoms after infection (Crook et al., 2021).”
BackgroundResult
Long Covid / Post-COVID-19-Syndrom bei Kindern und Jugendlichen
Vilser, D. (2022) · Pädiatrie · doi:10.1007/s15014-022-4024-2 · Cited by 10
“Mikrozirkulationsstörungen können zu Funktionsstörungen in allen Organe führen und damit die vielfältigen Symptome bei Long COVID erklären [6, 8].”
Background
Impact of SARS-CoV-2 on Host Factors Involved in Mental Disorders
Rhoades, R. E., Solomon, S., Johnson, C., & Teng, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.845559 · Cited by 9
Long-term psychological consequences of long Covid: a propensity score matching analysis comparing trajectories of depression and anxiety symptoms before and after contracting long Covid vs short CovidPreprint
Fancourt, D., Steptoe, A., & Bu, F.-F. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.04.01.22273305 · Cited by 8
“The information on date of contract was also collected: ‘If you have had Covid-19, when did you first contract it?’ Moreover, participants were asked if they considered themselves to have or have had long Covid, with responses: (1) yes, a medical professional has formally diagnosed me with long Covid; (2) yes, I have…”
Background
Discovery and Analytical Validation of a Vocal Biomarker to Monitor Anosmia and Ageusia in Patients With COVID-19: Cross-sectional Study
Higa, E., Elbéji, A., Zhang, L., Fischer, A., Aguayo, G., Nazarov, P. V., & Fagherazzi, G. (2022) · JMIR Medical Informatics · doi:10.2196/35622 · Cited by 10
“There are also many concerns about the so-called Long COVID, where anosmia and ageusia are frequently reported [8].”
Background
Chronic respiratory diseases other than asthma in children: the COVID-19 tsunami
Cicco, M. D., Tozzi, M. G., Ragazzo, V., Peroni, D. G., & Kantar, A. (2021) · The Italian Journal of Pediatrics/Italian journal of pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s13052-021-01155-9 · Cited by 10
“pnea, cognitive impairment, sleep disturbance, muscle pain and headache [86].”
Background
Vertebral Algic Syndrome Treatment in Long COVID—Cases Reports
Džubera, A., Chochol, J., Illéš, R., Chocholová, A., & Zemková, E. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182111457 · Cited by 10
“The time lag to full recovery varies, and those not regaining pre-COVID health status have been reported [13,15,17,18].”
Background
"I had no life. I was only existing". Factors shaping the mental health and wellbeing of people experiencing long Covid: a qualitative study.
Burton, A., Aughterson, H., Fancourt, D., & Philip, K. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.10.13.21264855 · Cited by 8
“Characteristics N = 21 (100%) COVID-19 diagnosis Suspected (no laboratory confirmation) 10 (48%) Confirmed via positive swab test 9 (43%) Confirmed via antibody test 2 (9%) Hospitalised 4 (19%) Long Covid most commonly reported symptoms Fatigue 20 (95%) Muscle aches 18 (86%) Shortness of breath 17 (81%) Difficulties c…”
Background
Fatigue and neuromuscular function in long COVID: A one-year follow-up study
Almeida, I. D. S., Ferreira, L. G. D. J., Vaz, M. A., Cipriano, G., de Resende, M. A., Vieira, D. C. L., Costa, R. R., Babault, N., Marqueti, R. D. C., & Durigan, J. L. Q. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0332242 · Cited by 8
Perceived Chronic Stress prior to SARS-CoV-2 Infection Predicts Ongoing Symptomatic COVID-19: A Prospective Cohort Study
Fazekas, C., Goswami, N., Matzer, F., Avian, A., Lodron, J., Rijksen, M., Hanfstingl, B., Kavcic, V., Groselj‐Strele, A., Sourij, H., et al. (2025) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000547858 · Cited by 6
“However, these factors do not fully explain its high clinical variability [3, 4].”
Mapping brain changes in post-COVID-19 cognitive decline via FDG PET hypometabolism and EEG slowing
Manganotti, P., Iscra, K., Furlanis, G., Michelutti, M., Miladinović, A., Menichelli, A., Cerio, I., Accardo, A., Dore, F., & Ajčević, M. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-04815-6 · Cited by 8
Using machine learning involving diagnoses and medications as a risk prediction tool for post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC) in primary care
Lee, S.-S., Kisiel, M. A., Lindberg, P., Wheelock, Å. M., Olofsson, A., Eriksson, J. A., Bruchfeld, J., Runold, M., Wahlström, L., Malinovschi, A., et al. (2025) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-025-04050-w · Cited by 7
Burden of non-COVID-19 lower respiratory infections in China (1990–2021): a global burden of disease study analysis
Li, M.-Y., Song, Z., Wan, W., & Zhou, H.-W. (2025) · Respiratory Research · doi:10.1186/s12931-025-03197-7 · Cited by 7
“Second, it has been reported that COVID-19, especially long covid and severe COVID-19, can cause long-term respiratory damage and affect many systems, which may contribute to the increased mortality [12, 13].”
Virtual recovery: efficacy of telerehabilitation on dyspnea, pain, and functional capacity in post-COVID-19 syndrome
Yasacı, Z., Mustafaoğlu, R., Ozgur, O., Kuveloglu, B., Esen, Y., Ozmen, O., & Yalçınkaya, E. Y. (2025) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-025-03899-3 · Cited by 8
1H and 31P MR Spectroscopy to Assess Muscle Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Long COVID
Finnigan, L., Cassar, M., Jafarpour, M., Sultana, A., Ashkir, Z., Azer, K., Neubauer, S., Tyler, D. J., Raman, B., & Valkovič, L. (2024) · Radiology · doi:10.1148/radiol.233173 · Cited by 7
“Post–COVID-19 condition (PCC), commonly called long COVID, refers to these lasting effects (2) that include disabling fatigue, breathlessness, and brain fog (3).”
Pulmonary diffusing capacity among individuals recovering from mild to moderate COVID-19: a cross-sectional study
Yelin, D., Ghantous, N., Awwad, M., Daitch, V., Kalfon, T., Mor, M., Buchrits, S., Shafir, Y., Shapira-Lichter, I., Leibovici, L., et al. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-74404-6 · Cited by 7
“The pathophysiology of this observation is yet uncertain, though several hypotheses were suggested, such as chronic viral persistence 14 , endothelial dysfunction and microthrombi 15 , and direct alveolar injury 6 .”
Background
Immune Response and Cognitive Impairment in Post-COVID Syndrome: A Systematic Review
Holland, J. F., Sheehan, D., Brown, S. A., O'Flanagan, S., Savinelli, S., O’Keeffe, F. M., & Bramham, J. (2024) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2024.09.022 · Cited by 7
Improving Quality of Life, Sleep and Mental Health Through Multicomponent Training versus Brazilian Recommendations of Physical Activity in Post-COVID-19 Patients: CORE-Study–A Randomized Controlled Trial
Sirydakis, M. E. D. M., Danielevicz, A., de Melo, P. U. G., Bregalda, J., Constantini, M. I., Pelliciari, G., Sampaio, S. K., Rech, C. R., Maurici, R., Gerage, A. M., et al. (2024) · Mental Health and Physical Activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2024.100615 · Cited by 7
Trends in cancer-related suicide in the United States: a population-based epidemiology study spanning 40 years of data
Liu, Q., Qu, Z., Dong, H., Qi, Y., Wu, J., Zhang, W., Wang, X., Wang, Z., Fang, Y., & Wang, J. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-02917-9 · Cited by 8
“Since 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly reshaped healthcare systems around the world, signi ﬁ cantly impacting people ’ s health and wellbeing, economic development, and the routine functioning of society [39, 40].”
Background
Enhancing EQ-5D-5L Sensitivity in Capturing the Most Common Symptoms in Post-COVID-19 Patients: An Exploratory Cross-Sectional Study with a Focus on Fatigue, Memory/Concentration Problems and Dyspnea Dimensions
Janols, H., Wadsten, C., Forssell, C., Raffeti, E., Janson, C., Zhou, X.-W., & Kisiel, M. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21050591 · Cited by 7
“Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, has led to a significant increase in global morbidity and mortality [1].”
Background
Characteristics of long COVID in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Chen, D., Huang, P.-I., & Tang, K. (2024) · Rheumatology Advances in Practice · doi:10.1093/rap/rkae027 · Cited by 9
How do clinicians use post-COVID syndrome diagnosis? Analysis of clinical features in a Swedish COVID-19 cohort with 18 months’ follow-up: a national observational cohort and matched cohort study
Ollila, H., Fonseca-Rodríguez, O., Caspersen, I. H., Kalucza, S., Normark, J., Trogstad, L., Magnus, P., Rod, N., Ganna, A., Eriksson, M., et al. (2024) · BMJ public health · doi:10.1136/bmjph-2023-000336 · Cited by 7
Causal relationship between COVID-19 and chronic pain: A mendelian randomization study
Fan, Y., & Xiao, L. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0295982 · Cited by 8
“One potential mechanism through which COVID-19 may contribute to chronic pain is the development of long-COVID. long-COVID is a condition in which individuals experience symptoms of COVID-19 long after they have recovered from the acute phase of the disease [43].”
Background
Evaluating the Predictors of Persistent Long COVID Symptoms and Their Severity in COVID-19 Survivors 1 Year After Infection
Aldhawyan, A. F., BuSaad, M. A., Alamri, B. A., Alsaihati, M. I., Alanazi, B. S., alanazi, R. A., & Bahamdan, A. S. (2024) · Journal of Primary Care & Community Health · doi:10.1177/21501319241295686 · Cited by 10
Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Based Therapies in the Post-Acute Neurological COVID Syndrome: Current Landscape and Opportunities
León-Moreno, L. C., Reza-Zaldívar, E. E., Hernández-Sapiéns, M. A., Villafaña-Estarrón, E., García-Martín, M. C., Ojeda-Hernández, D. D., Matías‐Guiu, J. A., Gómez‐Pinedo, U., Matías‐Guiu, J., & Canales-Aguirre, A. A. (2023) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom14010008 · Cited by 8
“However, the persistent symptomatology of long COVID could have multiple origins due to the different treatment protocols and intensity of infection of every patient, co-morbidities, or high-risk factors [8,53,54].”
Background
Improvements during long-term fasting in patients with long COVID – a case series and literature review
Grundler, F., Mesnage, R., Cerrada, A., & de Toledo, F. W. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1195270 · Cited by 13
“Symptoms are highly variable and can affect multiple systems, including respiratory, cardiovascular, neurological, gastrointestinal and musculoskeletal systems as well as mood disorders (2).”
BackgroundInfluential
Post-covid-19 syndrome: Self-compassion and psychological flexibility moderate the relationship between physical symptom load and psychosocial impact
Tudor, L., Harenwall, S., Henderson, R., & Bland, A. R. (2023) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104093 · Cited by 7
Hospital admission is associated with disability and late musculoskeletal pain in individuals with long COVID
Neto, R. B. D., Reis, L. F. D. F., Ferreira, A. D. S., Alexandre, D. J. D. A., & de Almeida, R. S. (2023) · Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences · doi:10.3389/fresc.2023.1186499 · Cited by 4
Cognitive disengagement syndrome in pediatric patients with long COVID: associations with mood, anxiety, and functional impairment
Luedke, J. C., Vargas, G., Jashar, D. T., Morrow, A. K., Malone, L. A., & Ng, R. (2023) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2023.2252967 · Cited by 10
“CDS has strong, unique associations with sleep problems and daytime sleepiness (see Becker et al., 2022), common concerns observed in those with long COVID (Ahmet et al., 2022; Crook et al., 2021).”
Background
The Effect of COVID-19 Information Overload on Emotional Eating in Post-pandemic Period in China: The Mediating Role of Fear of COVID-19 and the Moderating Role of Self-compassion
Xu, C. L., Shen, Z., Lin, N., Xie, Z., Xie, L., Wang, Z., Li, Z., Qiao, Q., & Yan, W. (2023) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-023-10213-9 · Cited by 7
“As a major public health emergency, the global COVID-19 outbreak has had a tremendous negative impact in terms of not only physical consequences (Crook et al., 2021; Davis et al., 2021) but also increased incidence of psychological disorders and behavioral problems (Chen et al., 2021; Dou et al.,…”
ACE2 PET in healthy and diseased conditions
Li, R., Xu, A.-J., Cheng, C., Chen, J., Wang, M., Luo, X., Liang, S.-Y., Hou, W., Cui, B., Feng, Y., et al. (2023) · Visual Information Expert Workshop · doi:10.1002/viw.20230009 · Cited by 7
Endothelium dysfunction and thrombosis in COVID-19 with type 2 diabetes
Li, M., Wu, X., Shi, J., & Niu, Y. (2023) · Endocrine · doi:10.1007/s12020-023-03439-y · Cited by 6
Long COVID in Patients with Rheumatologic Disease: A Single Center Observational Study
Quiñones-Moya, H., Valle, A. O.-D., Camargo‐Coronel, A., Jiménez-Balderas, F. J., Bernal-Enriquez, M. B., Rodríguez, P. M., Morales-Medino, K. N., Roque-Ibañez, C., & Hernández-Zavala, M. R. (2022) · Indian Journal of Rheumatology · doi:10.4103/injr.injr_118_22 · Cited by 7
“[1] As is implied by the name, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes acute respiratory illness, this is why when several patients began to report the persistence of some symptoms, not related to the respiratory system, long after the acute infection process, the…”
Influential
Assessing the long-term health impact of COVID-19: The importance of using self-reported health measures
Huijts, T., Witvliet, M. G., Balaj, M., & Eikemo, T. A. (2023) · Scandinavian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1177/14034948221143421 · Cited by 7
“This is problematic because epidemiological data on long COVID are needed to inform the development of adequate support and treatment [3].”
Background
Immunology of SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination
Lin, B., Cheng, L., Zhang, J., Yang, M. X., Zhang, Y., Liu, J., & Qin, X. (2023) · Clinica Chimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.cca.2023.117390 · Cited by 8
Social Media is not a Health Proxy: Differences Between Social Media and Electronic Health Record Reports of Post-COVID Symptoms
Pater, J. A., Coupe, A., Nova, F. F., Pfafman, R., Carroll, J., Brouwer, A., Bohn, C., Li, J., Todd, N., Chang, F. L., et al. (2023) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3579624 · Cited by 9
Psychiatric manifestations of post-COVID-19 syndrome: the potential benefit of Silexan
Kasper, S., Eckert, A., Möller, H., Volz, H., & Seifritz, E. (2023) · International journal of psychiatry in clinical practice · doi:10.1080/13651501.2023.2187308 · Cited by 7
A comprehensive systematic scoping review for physiotherapy interventions for people living with long COVID
Kabir, M. F., Yin, K. N., Jeffree, M. S., Ahmedy, F. B., Zainudin, M. F., Hossain, K. M. A., Jahan, S., Islam, M. W., Hasnat, M. A. K., & Fazal, A. I. A. (2023) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.132098.1 · Cited by 12
Identification of berberine as a potential therapeutic strategy for kidney clear cell carcinoma and COVID-19 based on analysis of large-scale datasets
Zheng, Z., Li, X., Nie, K., Wang, X., Liang, W., Yang, F., Zheng, K., & Zheng, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1038651 · Cited by 8
Higher rates of concussion following COVID-19 infection in high school athletes
Bullock, G., Emery, C., Nelson, V., Prats-Uribe, A., Gilliland, R. G., Thigpen, C., & Shanley, E. (2023) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsports-2022-106436 · Cited by 7
The effectiveness of incentive spirometry exercise on pulmonary function in COVID-19 survivors: a randomized controlled trial study
Kusumawardani, R. I., Tinduh, D., Andriati, Poerwandari, D., Marhana, I. A., & Melaniani, S. (2023) · Bali Medical Journal · doi:10.15562/bmj.v12i1.3956 · Cited by 8
Twelve‐month clinical, functional, and radiological outcomes in patients hospitalized for SARS‐CoV‐2 pneumonia
Bongiovanni, M., Barilaro, G., & Bini, F. (2023) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.28524 · Cited by 7
“We did not use a predefined questionnaire to evaluate persisting symptoms at the different time points; during the outpatient visits, patients were asked if they had persisting symptoms possibly related to long‐ COVID and we included in the analyses those potentially correlated with acute SARS‐CoV‐2 disease.(9,28,29)…”
Method
Building a Data Bridge: Policies, Structures, and Governance Integrating Primary Care Into the Public Health Response to COVID-19
Leslie, M., Hansen, B., Abboud, R., Claussen, C., McBrien, K., Hu, J., Ward, R., & Aghajafari, F. (2023) · Annals of Family Medicine · doi:10.1370/afm.2900 · Cited by 7
Weekly symptom profiles of nonhospitalized individuals infected with SARS‐CoV‐2 during the Omicron outbreak in Hong Kong: A retrospective observational study from a telemedicine center
Luo, J., Zhang, J., Tang, H. T., Wong, H. K., Ma, Y., Xie, D., Peng, B., Lü, A., Cheung, C. H., & Bian, Z. (2022) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.28447 · Cited by 10
“The symptoms of long COVID include fatigue, dyspnea, cardiac abnormalities, cognitive impairment, sleep disturbances, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, muscle pain, concentration problems, and headache.(21) Future study needs to focus on long COVID induced by Omicron”
Background

Authors: Crook, H., Raza, S., Nowell, J., Young, M., & Edison, P.
Affiliations: Imperial College London (GB)
Corresponding author: Edison, Paul
ORCID: Edison, Paul
Venue: BMJ
Publisher: BMJ
Published: 2021-07-26
Volume: 374
Pages: n1648
ISSN: 1756-1833 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1136/bmj.n1648
OpenAlex: W3186314395
Cited by: 1,655
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 85 · 2025: 205 · 2024: 329 · 2023: 508 · 2022: 466 · 2021: 60
FWCI: 43.57
Type: journal article
Language: en
Update notices: correction (2021-08-03)
Open access: closed
Licence: bmj.com/coronavirus/usage (tdm)
Locations: BMJ (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Long-Term Effects of COVID-19
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
Keywords: long COVID, SARS-CoV-2, persistent symptoms, fatigue, dyspnea, cardiac anomalies, cognitive impairment, sleep disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, myalgia, risk factors, treatment options
MeSH terms: Global Burden of Disease, COVID-19, Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome, Clinical Trials as Topic, Combined Modality Therapy, Humans, Risk Factors, Severity of Illness Index, Incidence, Practice Guidelines as Topic, Drug Repositioning

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Long covid—mechanisms, risk factors, and management

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