The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Bacterial infection causes stress-induced memory dysfunction in mice
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: The brain-gut axis is a key regulator of normal intestinal physiology; for example, psychological stress is linked to altered gut barrier function, development of food allergies and changes in behaviour. Whether intestinal events, such as enteric bacterial infections and bacterial colonisation, exert a reciprocal effect on stress-associated behaviour is not well established. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of either acute enteric infection or absence of gut microbiota on behaviour, including anxiety and non-spatial memory formation. METHODS: Behaviour was assessed following infection with the non-invasive enteric pathogen, Citrobacter rodentium in both C57BL/6 mice and germ-free Swiss-Webster mice, in the presence or absence of acute water avoidance stress. Whether daily treatment with probiotics normalised behaviour was assessed, and potential mechanisms of action evaluated. RESULTS: No behavioural abnormalities were observed, either at the height of infection (10 days) or following bacterial clearance (30 days), in C rodentium-infected C57BL/6 mice. When infected mice were exposed to acute stress, however, memory dysfunction was apparent after infection (10 days and 30 days). Memory dysfunction was prevented by daily treatment of infected mice with probiotics. Memory was impaired in germ-free mice, with or without exposure to stress, in contrast to conventionally reared, control Swiss-Webster mice with an intact intestinal microbiota. CONCLUSIONS: The intestinal microbiota influences the ability to form memory. Memory dysfunction occurs in infected mice exposed to acute stress, while in the germ-free setting memory is altered at baseline.
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“Firstly, studies in germ-free (GF) animals showed that the brain is affected in the absence of microbiota (see Table 2) (Clarke et al., 2013;Diaz Heijtz et al., 2011;Gareau et al., 2011;Hegstrand and Hine, 1986;Neufeld et al., 2011;Sudo et al., 2004).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“In addition, these animals exhibit altered BDNF expression in the hippocampus (Bercik et al., 2011a;Diaz Heijtz et al., 2011;Gareau et al., 2011), which as stated earlier has an important role in synaptic plasticity and cognition (Baj et al., 2013;Lu et al., 2014;Neufeld et al., 2011), suggesting a crucial involvement of microbes in regulating hippocampal-dependent memory function.”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“In addition, these animals exhibit altered BDNF expression in the hippocampus (Bercik et al., 2011a;Diaz Heijtz et al., 2011;Gareau et al., 2011), which as stated earlier has an important role in synaptic plasticity and cognition (Baj et al., 2013;Lu et al., 2014;Neufeld et al., 2011), suggesting a crucial involvement of microbes in regulating hippocampal-dependent memory function.”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“It has been shown that GF mice exhibit an impaired ability to remember a familiar object when presented with a novel object (Gareau et al., 2011;Luk et al., 2018), as well as impaired working memory in remembering a familiar environment in the spontaneous alternation task (Gareau et al., 2011).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“It has been shown that GF mice exhibit an impaired ability to remember a familiar object when presented with a novel object (Gareau et al., 2011;Luk et al., 2018), as well as impaired working memory in remembering a familiar environment in the spontaneous alternation task (Gareau et al., 2011).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“Indeed, different Lactobacillus strains were capable of restoring deficits in object recognition memory induced by chronic restraint stress (Liang et al., 2015a), as well as preventing these deficits in GF mice (Gareau et al., 2011), in a mouse model of colitis (Emge et al., 2016), and in immunodeficient mice (Smith et al., 2014).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“BDNF expression as measured by immunohistochemistry was decreased in the CA1 hippocampal brain area in GF stressed mice compared to stressed controls (Gareau et al., 2011).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“An increasing body of preclinical and human evidence demonstrates that the MGB axis plays important roles in the development and maintenance of various components of cognition (191, 362, 375).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“The introduction of pathogenic bacteria reduced cognitive abilities and heightened anxiety-like behaviors (362, 363).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“This deficit was prevented by daily administration of a Lactobacillus sp. probiotic combination before infection.”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“Gareau et al. demonstrated impaired short-term recognition and working memory in 5 to 6-week-old germ-free mice when compared to conventionally reared counterparts (362).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“Studies in germ-free mice have shown that, in the absence of microbes, the brain is markedly affected, exhibiting deficits in learning, memory formation and recognition, and social and emotional behaviors (58, 123, 124, 362).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“Germ-free mice present with social cognitive deficits, which may be associated with biochemical changes, such as decreased hippocampal BDNF and c-FOS expression, important in memory (124, 362, 376, 377).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“Administration of C. rodentium, combined with acute stress, led to memory dysfunction in young adult germ-free mice (362).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“For example, Gareau et al. demonstrated a lack of memory in germ-free mice in the T-maze test and novel object test in situations with or without stress (362).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“These studies show that rodents lacking all gut bacteria from birth (germ-free animals) have memory deficits28 and behavioral abnormalities29, 30 when compared to animals with normal gut microbiota.”
From The relation between cesarean birth and child cognitive development (2017) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Interestingly, these cognitive deficits in rodents can be corrected through the colonization of the intestine via a fecal transplant from the control group, but only if it occurs early in life.”
From The relation between cesarean birth and child cognitive development (2017) · cites this paper as [28]
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Gut microbes, ageing & organ function: a chameleon in modern biology?
Reza, M. M., Finlay, B. B., & Pettersson, S. (2019) · EMBO Molecular Medicine · doi:10.15252/emmm.201809872 · Cited by 18
“…players with an ability to reduce stress responses, influence anxiety and change behaviour, including social interactions (Sudo et al, 2004; Bercik et al, 2011; Bravo et al, 2011; Gareau et al, 2011; Heijtz et al, 2011; Ait-Belgnaoui et al, 2012, 2014; Hsiao et al, 2013; Buffington et al, 2016).”
BackgroundHickey, M. K., Miller, N. C., Haapala, J. L., Demerath, E. W., Pfister, K. M., Georgieff, M., & Gale, C. A. (2020) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-020-01117-7 · Cited by 19
Noori, M., Shateri, Z., Babajafari, S., Eskandari, M. H., Parastouei, K., Ghasemi, M., Afshari, H., & Samadi, M. (2025) · Journal of Health Population and Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s41043-025-00773-x · Cited by 22
“It has also been shown that the consumption of probiotics plays an important role in the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor [44, 45] and γ-aminobutyric acid, an important neurotransmitter in depression [46].”
Renson, A., Kasselman, L. J., Dowd, J. B., Waldron, L., Jones, H. E., & Herd, P. (2020) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2020.100155 · Cited by 20
Sarkar, S. R., Mazumder, P. M., & Banerjee, S. (2022) · Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s11481-021-10041-4 · Cited by 19
Infectious disease and cognition in wild populations
Townsend, A. K., Sewall, K. B., Leonard, A. S., & Hawley, D. M. (2022) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2022.06.005 · Cited by 17
Chen, X., Zheng, Y., Liu, L., Zhang, R., Zhang, X., Peng, C., Geng, Y., Zhou, F., Han, Y., & Hou, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.912968 · Cited by 18
“Compared with mice with normal gut microbiota, germ-free mice showed more obvious short-term cognitive and working memory impairments, whereas probiotic treatment prevented memory impairment after an inflammatory response in mice (Gareau et al., 2011).”
BackgroundHua, H., Huang, L., Yang, B., Jiang, S., Zhang, Y., Liu, J., Yan, C., & Xu, J. (2023) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.114798 · Cited by 17
Chatterjee, K., Pal, A., Padhy, D. S., Saha, R., Chatterjee, A., Bharadwaj, M., Sarkar, B., Mazumder, P. M., & Banerjee, S. (2024) · Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s11481-024-10156-4 · Cited by 20
“Hippocampal neuronal health has long been associated with learning and memory (Gareau et al. 2011 ; Heijtz et al. 2011 ).”
Spreadbury, I., Ochoa‐Cortés, F., Ibeakanma, C. O., Martin, N., Hurlbut, D. J., & Vanner, S. J. (2014) · Neurogastroenterology & Motility · doi:10.1111/nmo.12497 · Cited by 20
Defining Dysbiosis in Disorders of Movement and Motivation
Fields, C. T., Sampson, T. R., Bruce‐Keller, A. J., Kiraly, D. D., Hsiao, E. Y., & Vries, G. J. D. (2018) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1672-18.2018 · Cited by 18
“…for familiar object Desbonnet et al., 2015 Germ-free Swiss-Webster mice, male Novel object preference Increased preference for familiar object Gareau et al., 2011 High-dose antibiotic mixture C57BL/6 mice, male Novel object preference Increased preference for familiar object Fröhlich et…”
BackgroundOhland, C., Pankiv, E., Baker, G. B., & Madsen, K. L. (2015) · Nutritional Neuroscience · doi:10.1179/1476830515y.0000000034 · Cited by 18
Zhao, H., Chen, X., Zhang, L., Tang, C., Meng, F., Zhou, L., Ping, Z., Lu, Z., & Lu, Y. (2023) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d2fo04014j · Cited by 19
Vitamin K2 protects against aluminium chloride-mediated neurodegeneration
Chatterjee, K., Mazumder, P. M., & Banerjee, S. (2023) · Inflammopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s10787-023-01290-1 · Cited by 18
“Hippocampal neuronal density Learning and memory have been linked to hippocampal neuronal health (Gareau et al. 2011; Heijtz et al. 2011).”
BackgroundLipids, Gut Microbiota, and the Complex Relationship with Alzheimer’s Disease: A Narrative Review
Simão, D. O., Vieira, V. S., Tosatti, J. A. G., & Gomes, K. B. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15214661 · Cited by 21
“This disrupts the homeostasis of the GBMA axis, impairing cognition [51].”
BackgroundA review on gut microbiota and miRNA crosstalk: implications for Alzheimer’s disease
Ayyanar, M. P., & Vijayan, M. (2024) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-024-01432-5 · Cited by 22
“…environments to prevent postnatal colonization of their gastrointestinal tract, show impairments in non-spatial and working memory functions, such as deficiencies in novel object recognition and spontaneous alternation tasks in the T-maze, along with reduced BDNF expression in the hippocampus [54].”
Nikolova, V. L., Cleare, A. J., Young, A. H., & Stone, J. M. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.01.153 · Cited by 20
Abdrabou, A. M., Osman, E. Y., & Aboubakr, O. A. (2018) · Human Microbiome Journal · doi:10.1016/j.humic.2018.08.001 · Cited by 17
Parois, S. P., Eicher, S. D., Lindemann, S. R., & Marchant, J. N. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-03565-5 · Cited by 17
Restorative effects of probiotics on memory impairment in sleep-deprived mice
Griffin, S. M., Lehtinen, M. J., Meunier, J., Ceolin, L., Roman, F. J., & Patterson, E. (2022) · Nutritional Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/1028415x.2022.2042915 · Cited by 20
“Similarly, another study demonstrated the ability of a probiotic combination of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus R0011 and Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 to improve memory processes impaired by stress and infection in the NOR test [30], in addition to other animal model”
ResultNeuronal metabolism in learning and memory: The anticipatory activity perspective
Alexandrov, Y. I., & Pletnikov, M. V. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104664 · Cited by 20
Gupta, S., Dinesh, S., & Sharma, S. (2024) · Central Nervous System Agents in Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.2174/0118715249271548231115071021 · Cited by 18
Validity of mental and physical stress models
Hendry, E., McCallister, B., Elman, D. J., Freeman, R. L., Borsook, D., & Elman, I. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105566 · Cited by 18
Kaur, A., Chopra, K., Kaur, I. P., & Rishi, P. (2020) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.01568 · Cited by 18
LaGamma, E. F., Hu, F., Cruz, F. P., Bouchev, P., & Nankova, B. B. (2021) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100376 · Cited by 16
Granata, L., Gildawie, K. R., Ismail, N., Brenhouse, H. C., & Kopec, A. M. (2022) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2022.101143 · Cited by 15
Early-life gut microbiome maturity regulates blood–brain barrier and cognitive development
Zemmel, Z. M., Fan, X., Yu, Y., Markiewicz, E. J., Tsai, H., Lu, L., Little, J., Ramaswamy, R., Andrews, B., Claud, E. C., et al. (2025) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.1080/19490976.2025.2551879 · Cited by 19
Prebiotic Intake in Older Adults: Effects on Brain Function and Behavior
Serra, M. C., Nocera, J. R., Kelleher, J. L., & Addison, O. R. (2019) · Current Nutrition Reports · doi:10.1007/s13668-019-0265-2 · Cited by 14
Does the gut microbiota contribute to the oligodendrocyte progenitor niche?
Sauma, S., & Casaccia, P. (2019) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2019.134574 · Cited by 14
Kim, H., Jeon, S., Kim, J., Seol, D., Jo, J., Cho, S., & Kim, H. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-14837-z · Cited by 13
Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis and Antidepressant Treatment
Lachmansingh, D. A., Lavelle, A., Cryan, J. F., & Clarke, G. A. (2023) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2023_449 · Cited by 17
Manchia, M., Paribello, P., Arzedi, C., Bocchetta, A., Caria, P., Cocco, C., Congiu, D., Cossu, E., Dettori, T., Frau, D. V., et al. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-032513 · Cited by 15
Mental Disorders Linked to Crosstalk between The Gut Microbiome and The Brain
Choi, T.-Y., Choi, Y. P., & Koo, J. W. (2020) · Experimental Neurobiology · doi:10.5607/en20047 · Cited by 18
“Recognition memory and working memory were impaired in GF mice, as shown by performance in the novel object recognition test and T-maze spontaneous alternation test [25, 104].”
MethodExercise and Prebiotics Produce Stress Resistance
Mika, A., Rumian, N. L., Loughridge, A. B., & Fleshner, M. (2016) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2016.08.004 · Cited by 19
Microbial metabolites tune amygdala neuronal hyperexcitability and anxiety-linked behaviors
Yu, W., Xiao, Y., Jayaraman, A., Yen, Y.-C., Lee, H. U., Pettersson, S., & Je, H. S. (2025) · EMBO Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1038/s44321-024-00179-y · Cited by 16
“Several studies in the past have reported a correlation between gut microbiota and behavior in mice (Diaz Heijtz et al, 2011; Gareau et al, 2011; Neufeld et al, 2011; Clarke et al, 2013; Crumeyrolle-Arias et al, 2014; Arentsen et al, 2015).”
Gut Microbiota and Alzheimer’s Disease: Pathophysiology and Therapeutic Perspectives
Li, Y., Wang, R., Li, Q., Wang, Y., & Guo, J. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-210381 · Cited by 16
“GF mice exhibit deficits in nonspatial memory in the novel object test and deficits in working memory in the T-maze test compared with SPF mice colonized with intact gut microbiota [52].”
The gut microbiome and the brain
Rykalo, N. A., Riehl, L., & Kress, M. (2024) · Current Opinion in Supportive and Palliative Care · doi:10.1097/spc.0000000000000717 · Cited by 16
“…shows region-specific alterations in the expression of anxiety-related neurotransmitters serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), norepinephrine, dopamine, brain-derived neurotrophic factor [37–41], and synaptic proteins within specific brain regions associated with altered memory formation [42,43].”
Pasam, T., Padhy, H. P., & Dandekar, M. P. (2024) · Neurochemical Research · doi:10.1007/s11064-024-04251-4 · Cited by 14
Chrobak, A. A., Nowakowski, J., & Dudek, D. (2016) · Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy · doi:10.12740/app/62962 · Cited by 15
“However, this effect can also be reverted, as corticosterone release is normalized with probiotic pre-treatment [14] – Lactobacillus is a probiotic species found to be capable of reducing corticosterone levels [9].”
BackgroundLiu, R., Wei, P., Keller, C., Orefice, N. S., Shi, Y., Li, Z., Huang, J., Cui, Y., Frost, D. C., Han, S., et al. (2020) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.0c02939 · Cited by 14
Agnihotri, N., & Mohajeri, M. H. (2022) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202211.0303.v1 · Cited by 14
Nafady, M. H., Sayed, Z. S., Abdelkawy, D. A., Shebl, M. E., Elsayed, R. A., Ashraf, G. M., Perveen, A., Attia, M. S., & Bahbah, E. I. (2022) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/1567205019666220419101205 · Cited by 13
Bakonyi, P., Kolonics, A., Aczél, D., Zhou, L., Mozaffaritabar, S., Molnár, K., László, L., Kutasi, B., Tanisawa, K., Park, J., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2023.1173636 · Cited by 13
“One of the important factors in this interaction is the microbiome (Gareau et al., 2011).”
BackgroundYao, S., Han, J.-Z., Guo, J., Wang, X., Qian, L., Wu, H., Shi, W., Zhu, R., Wang, J.-H., Dong, S., et al. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.02.1012 · Cited by 13
The Contribution of Type 2 Diabetes to Parkinson’s Disease Aetiology
Ribarič, S. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25084358 · Cited by 15
Facchin, M., & Leonetti, G. (2024) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-024-04579-y · Cited by 14
“2011a,b) and spatial memory storage (Gareau et al .”
He, Y., Zhao, J., Ma, Y., Yan, X., Duan, Y., Zhang, X., Dong, H., Fang, R., Zhang, Y., Li, Q., et al. (2024) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-024-03145-0 · Cited by 15
“However, inconsistent with one report, in the present study, anxiety-like behavior was observed at 9 days after C.R infection [62].”
ResultThe early life exposome and autism risk: a role for the maternal microbiome?
Gesù, C. M. D., & Buffington, S. A. (2024) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.1080/19490976.2024.2385117 · Cited by 16
Sun, N., Zhu, B., Xin, J., Li, L., Gan, B., Cao, X., Fang, J., Pan, K., Jing, B., Zeng, Y., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.847468 · Cited by 16
“Every mouse underwent the same process for 10 rounds (Deacon and Rawlins, 2006; Gareau et al., 2011).”
MethodThe Role of the Microbiome in the Relationship of Asthma and Affective Disorders
Trueba, A. F., Ritz, T., & Trueba, G. A. (2016) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20215-0_13 · Cited by 13
Vijayakumar, P., & Praveen, S. (2017) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2016.00136 · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Gareau, M. G., Wine, E., Rodrigues, D. M., Cho, J. H., Whary, M. T., Philpott, D. J., MacQueen, G., & Sherman, P. M.
- Affiliations
- Hospital for Sick Children (CA)
- University of Alberta (CA)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Sherman, Philip M
- ORCID
- Venue
- Gut
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2010-10-21
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 307-317
- ISSN
- 0017-5749 (ISSN-L)
- 1468-3288
- OpenAlex
- W2170856053
- Cited by
- 909
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 53 · 2024: 72 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 94 · 2021: 91 · 2020: 113 · 2019: 79 · 2018: 73 · 2017: 62 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 7.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- Gut (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
- Keywords
- enteric bacterial infection, Citrobacter rodentium, gut microbiota, germ-free mice, non-spatial memory, anxiety, water avoidance stress, probiotics, gut-brain axis, acute stress
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Anxiety, Behavior, Animal, Colon, Corticosterone, Enterobacteriaceae Infections, Feces, Female, Germ-Free Life, Hippocampus, Hyperplasia, Memory Disorders, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Stress, Psychological, Cytokines, Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-fos, Inflammation Mediators, Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, Probiotics, Citrobacter rodentium, Mice
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