The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Bacterial infection causes stress-induced memory dysfunction in mice
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: The brain-gut axis is a key regulator of normal intestinal physiology; for example, psychological stress is linked to altered gut barrier function, development of food allergies and changes in behaviour. Whether intestinal events, such as enteric bacterial infections and bacterial colonisation, exert a reciprocal effect on stress-associated behaviour is not well established. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of either acute enteric infection or absence of gut microbiota on behaviour, including anxiety and non-spatial memory formation. METHODS: Behaviour was assessed following infection with the non-invasive enteric pathogen, Citrobacter rodentium in both C57BL/6 mice and germ-free Swiss-Webster mice, in the presence or absence of acute water avoidance stress. Whether daily treatment with probiotics normalised behaviour was assessed, and potential mechanisms of action evaluated. RESULTS: No behavioural abnormalities were observed, either at the height of infection (10 days) or following bacterial clearance (30 days), in C rodentium-infected C57BL/6 mice. When infected mice were exposed to acute stress, however, memory dysfunction was apparent after infection (10 days and 30 days). Memory dysfunction was prevented by daily treatment of infected mice with probiotics. Memory was impaired in germ-free mice, with or without exposure to stress, in contrast to conventionally reared, control Swiss-Webster mice with an intact intestinal microbiota. CONCLUSIONS: The intestinal microbiota influences the ability to form memory. Memory dysfunction occurs in infected mice exposed to acute stress, while in the germ-free setting memory is altered at baseline.
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“Firstly, studies in germ-free (GF) animals showed that the brain is affected in the absence of microbiota (see Table 2) (Clarke et al., 2013;Diaz Heijtz et al., 2011;Gareau et al., 2011;Hegstrand and Hine, 1986;Neufeld et al., 2011;Sudo et al., 2004).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“In addition, these animals exhibit altered BDNF expression in the hippocampus (Bercik et al., 2011a;Diaz Heijtz et al., 2011;Gareau et al., 2011), which as stated earlier has an important role in synaptic plasticity and cognition (Baj et al., 2013;Lu et al., 2014;Neufeld et al., 2011), suggesting a crucial involvement of microbes in regulating hippocampal-dependent memory function.”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“In addition, these animals exhibit altered BDNF expression in the hippocampus (Bercik et al., 2011a;Diaz Heijtz et al., 2011;Gareau et al., 2011), which as stated earlier has an important role in synaptic plasticity and cognition (Baj et al., 2013;Lu et al., 2014;Neufeld et al., 2011), suggesting a crucial involvement of microbes in regulating hippocampal-dependent memory function.”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“It has been shown that GF mice exhibit an impaired ability to remember a familiar object when presented with a novel object (Gareau et al., 2011;Luk et al., 2018), as well as impaired working memory in remembering a familiar environment in the spontaneous alternation task (Gareau et al., 2011).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“It has been shown that GF mice exhibit an impaired ability to remember a familiar object when presented with a novel object (Gareau et al., 2011;Luk et al., 2018), as well as impaired working memory in remembering a familiar environment in the spontaneous alternation task (Gareau et al., 2011).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“Indeed, different Lactobacillus strains were capable of restoring deficits in object recognition memory induced by chronic restraint stress (Liang et al., 2015a), as well as preventing these deficits in GF mice (Gareau et al., 2011), in a mouse model of colitis (Emge et al., 2016), and in immunodeficient mice (Smith et al., 2014).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“BDNF expression as measured by immunohistochemistry was decreased in the CA1 hippocampal brain area in GF stressed mice compared to stressed controls (Gareau et al., 2011).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Gareau et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“An increasing body of preclinical and human evidence demonstrates that the MGB axis plays important roles in the development and maintenance of various components of cognition (191, 362, 375).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“The introduction of pathogenic bacteria reduced cognitive abilities and heightened anxiety-like behaviors (362, 363).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“This deficit was prevented by daily administration of a Lactobacillus sp. probiotic combination before infection.”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“Gareau et al. demonstrated impaired short-term recognition and working memory in 5 to 6-week-old germ-free mice when compared to conventionally reared counterparts (362).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“Studies in germ-free mice have shown that, in the absence of microbes, the brain is markedly affected, exhibiting deficits in learning, memory formation and recognition, and social and emotional behaviors (58, 123, 124, 362).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“Germ-free mice present with social cognitive deficits, which may be associated with biochemical changes, such as decreased hippocampal BDNF and c-FOS expression, important in memory (124, 362, 376, 377).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“Administration of C. rodentium, combined with acute stress, led to memory dysfunction in young adult germ-free mice (362).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“For example, Gareau et al. demonstrated a lack of memory in germ-free mice in the T-maze test and novel object test in situations with or without stress (362).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [362]
In the citing paper
“These studies show that rodents lacking all gut bacteria from birth (germ-free animals) have memory deficits28 and behavioral abnormalities29, 30 when compared to animals with normal gut microbiota.”
From The relation between cesarean birth and child cognitive development (2017) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Interestingly, these cognitive deficits in rodents can be corrected through the colonization of the intestine via a fecal transplant from the control group, but only if it occurs early in life.”
From The relation between cesarean birth and child cognitive development (2017) · cites this paper as [28]
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Microbiota influence the development of the brain and behaviors in C57BL/6J mice
Lu, J., Synowiec, S., Lu, L., Yu, Y., Bretherick, T., Takada, S., Yarnykh, V., Caplan, J., Caplan, M., Claud, E. C., et al. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0201829 · Cited by 159
Do your gut microbes affect your brain dopamine?
González‐Arancibia, C., Urrutia-Piñones, J., Illanes-González, J., Martínez-Pinto, J., Sotomayor‐Zárate, R., Julio‐Pieper, M., & Bravo, J. A. (2019) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05265-5 · Cited by 160
The microbiota-gut-brain axis in functional gastrointestinal disorders
De Palma, G., Collins, S. M., & Bercik, P. (2014) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.4161/gmic.29417 · Cited by 157
Neuroinflammation, gut microbiome, and Alzheimer's disease
Lin, L., Zheng, L. J., & Zhang, L. J. (2018) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-018-0983-2 · Cited by 147
Emge, J. R., Huynh, K., Miller, E. N., Kaur, M., Reardon, C., Barrett, K. E., & Gareau, M. G. (2016) · American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00086.2016 · Cited by 152
“A value of 50% indicated that the mouse investigated both objects equally whereas a higher value indicated that the mouse investigated the new object more than the old object (14).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationThe gut microbiome as a driver of individual variation in cognition and functional behaviour
Davidson, G. L., Cooke, A. C., Johnson, C. N., & Quinn, J. L. (2018) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0286 · Cited by 155
Wiley, N., Dinan, T. G., Ross, R. P., Stanton, C., Clarke, G. A., & Cryan, J. F. (2017) · Journal of Animal Science · doi:10.2527/jas.2016.1256 · Cited by 190
Microbiome and nutrition in autism spectrum disorder: Current knowledge and research needs
Berding, K., & Donovan, S. M. (2016) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuw048 · Cited by 146
Myelin as a regulator of development of the microbiota-gut-brain axis
Keogh, C. E., Kim, D. H. J., Pusceddu, M. M., Knotts, T. A., Rabasa, G., Sladek, J. A., Hsieh, M. T., Honeycutt, M., Brust-Mascher, I., Barboza, M., et al. (2021) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.11.001 · Cited by 137
“L/D box—To measure anxiety-like behavior, the L/D box test was used as described previously (Gareau et al., 2011).”
MethodSelf-citationRelevance of gutmicrobiota in cognition, behaviour and Alzheimer’s disease
de J.R. De-Paula, V., Forlenza, A. S., & Forlenza, O. V. (2018) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2018.07.007 · Cited by 145
Diet, gut microbiota and cognition
Proctor, C., Thiennimitr, P., Chattipakorn, N., & Chattipakorn, S. C. (2017) · Metabolic Brain Disease · doi:10.1007/s11011-016-9917-8 · Cited by 144
Probiotics normalize the gut-brain-microbiota axis in immunodeficient mice
Smith, C. J., Emge, J. R., Berzins, K., Lung, L., Khamishon, R., Shah, P., Rodrigues, D. M., Sousa, A. J., Reardon, C., Sherman, P. M., et al. (2014) · American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00238.2014 · Cited by 143
Self-citationInfluence of the microbiota-gut-brain axis on behavior and welfare in farm animals: A review
Kraïmi, N., Dawkins, M. S., Gebhardt‐Henrich, S. G., Velge, P., Rychlı́k, I., Volf, J., Créach, P., Smith, A. L., Colles, F. M., & Leterrier, C. (2019) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112658 · Cited by 161
The vagus nerve modulates BDNF expression and neurogenesis in the hippocampus
O’Leary, O. F., Ogbonnaya, E. S., Felice, D., Levone, B. R., C. Conroy, L., Fitzgerald, P., Bravo, J. A., Forsythe, P., Bienenstock, J., Dinan, T. G., et al. (2018) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.12.004 · Cited by 151
Connection between gut microbiome and brain development in preterm infants
Lu, J. N., & Claud, E. C. (2018) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21806 · Cited by 152
“Pioneer studies have demonstrated that GF mice exhibit increased exploratory activities, reduced anxiety, exaggerated hypothalamic-pituitary response to stress, and impaired non-spatial and working memory (Diaz Heijtz et al., 2011; Gareau et al., 2011; Neufeld et al., 2011; Sudo et al., 2004).”
BackgroundThe Immunopathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease Is Related to the Composition of Gut Microbiota
Leblhuber, F., Ehrlich, D., Steiner, K., Geisler, S., Fuchs, D., Lanser, L., & Kurz, K. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13020361 · Cited by 149
Sun, J., Liu, S., Ling, Z., Wang, F., Ling, Y., Gong, T., Fang, N., Ye, S., Si, J., & Liu, J. (2019) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.8b07313 · Cited by 148
Loman, B. R., Jordan, K. R., Haynes, B., Bailey, M. T., & Pyter, L. M. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-52893-0 · Cited by 143
Role of the intestinal microbiome, intestinal barrier and psychobiotics in depression
Trzeciak, P., & Herbet, M. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13030927 · Cited by 139
Adding fuel to the fire: the impact of stress on the ageing brain
Prenderville, J. A., Kennedy, P. J., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2015) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2014.11.001 · Cited by 136
Sánchez, M., Darimont, C., Panahi, S., Drapeau, V., Marette, A., Taylor, V. H., Doré, J., & Tremblay, A. (2017) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu9030284 · Cited by 138
“[11] showed that the microbiota are essential for the normal cognitive development of mice [11].”
BackgroundOn communication between gut microbes and the brain
Forsythe, P., Kunze, W. A., & Bienenstock, J. (2012) · Current Opinion in Gastroenterology · doi:10.1097/mog.0b013e3283572ffa · Cited by 137
Maranduba, C. M. D. C., de Castro, S. B. R., de Souza, G. T., Rossato, C., da Guia, F. C., Valente, M. A. S., Rettore, J. V. P., Maranduba, C. P., de Souza, C. M., do Carmo, A. M. R., et al. (2015) · Journal of Immunology Research · doi:10.1155/2015/931574 · Cited by 137
“The system must be able to discriminate pathogens that require a protective immune response, from normal microbiota or food antigens, where a dynamic unresponsiveness state is necessary [36].”
BackgroundThe Second Brain: Is the Gut Microbiota a Link Between Obesity and Central Nervous System Disorders?
Ochoa‐Repáraz, J., & Kasper, L. H. (2016) · Current Obesity Reports · doi:10.1007/s13679-016-0191-1 · Cited by 141
Age-related shifts in gut microbiota contribute to cognitive decline in aged rats
Li, Y., Ning, L., Yin, Y., Wang, R., Zhang, Z., Hao, L., Wang, B., Zhao, X., Yang, X., Yin, L., et al. (2020) · Aging · doi:10.18632/aging.103093 · Cited by 125
“reports were based on special animal models, such as germ-free (GF) mice [8], or on various artificial interventions that change the gut microbiota, such as pathogenic bacterial infection, probiotics [8], and antibiotics [9].”
BackgroundCognitive Function and the Microbiome
Gareau, M. G. (2016) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2016.08.001 · Cited by 138
Self-citationCerovic, M., Forloni, G., & Balducci, C. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00284 · Cited by 127
Wang, Q., Shen, Y., Wang, X., Fu, S., Zhang, X., Zhang, Y., & Wang, R. (2020) · Aging · doi:10.18632/aging.102645 · Cited by 135
“Similarly, supplementation with various probiotic strains has been observed to improve cognitive functions and alleviate symptoms in several diseases such as diabetes [37], among others [38].”
BackgroundOlson, C. A., Iñiguez, A. J., Yang, G. E., Fang, P., Pronovost, G. N., Jameson, K. G., Rendon, T. K., Paramo, J., Barlow, J. T., Ismagilov, R. F., et al. (2021) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2021.07.004 · Cited by 126
“Proof-of-concept studies have reported that complete absence or severe depletion of the microbiota results in widespread alterations in complex animal behaviors, including learning andmemory (Chu et al., 2019; Desbonnet et al., 2014; Fröhlich et al., 2016; Gareau et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2020; Möhle et al., 2016; Vuo…”
BackgroundInfluentialPosttraumatic stress disorder: does the gut microbiome hold the key?
Leclercq, S., Forsythe, P., & Bienenstock, J. (2016) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0706743716635535 · Cited by 121
The Gut-Microglia Connection: Implications for Central Nervous System Diseases
Wang, Y., Wang, Z., Wang, Y., Li, F., Jia, J., Song, X., Qin, S., Wang, R., Jin, F., Kitazato, K., et al. (2018) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.02325 · Cited by 130
Stress matters: randomized controlled trial on the effect of probiotics on neurocognition
Papalini, S., Michels, F., Kohn, N., Wegman, J., van Hemert, S., Roelofs, K., Arias-Vasquez, A., & Aarts, E. (2019) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2018.100141 · Cited by 123
“Animal studies have shown how the gut-brain axis is crucial for stress regulation, by influencing the development of the hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which – in turn – is related to mood, emotion, and BDNF expression important for learning and memory (Sudo et al., 2004; Li et al., 2009; Gareau et al., 201…”
BackgroundMicrobial colonization is required for normal neurobehavioral development in zebrafish
Phelps, D. W., Brinkman, N. E., Keely, S. P., Anneken, E. M., Catron, T. R., Betancourt, D. A., Wood, C. E., Espenschied, S. T., Rawls, J. F., & Tal, T. L. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-10517-5 · Cited by 127
Microbial ecosystems therapeutics: a new paradigm in medicine?
Petrof, E., Claud, E. C., Gloor, G. B., & Allen‐Vercoe, E. (2012) · Beneficial Microbes · doi:10.3920/bm2012.0039 · Cited by 127
“…infection with pathogens such as Citrobacter rodentium have been shown to modulate behaviour, with the former approach giving rise to a less anxious phenotype (Bercik et al., 2011) and the latter approach resulting in enhanced anxiety and stress-induced memory dysfunction (Gareau et al., 2011).”
BackgroundBrain-gut axis in the pathogenesis of Helicobacter pylori infection
Budzyński, J. (2014) · World Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.3748/wjg.v20.i18.5212 · Cited by 122
Zhou, Y., Wang, Y., Quan, M., Zhao, H., & Jia, J. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-201497 · Cited by 125
“Numerous animal studies using germ-free animals, antibiotics or probiotics interventions, microbial infections, and fecal microbiota transplantation showed that gut microbiota influences the host’s cognition and may be involved in the pathogenesis of AD [16–20].”
Bested, A. C., Logan, A. C., & Selhub, E. M. (2013) · Gut Pathogens · doi:10.1186/1757-4749-5-3 · Cited by 121
“Experimentally, germfree animals have a compromised ability to form memories [187], and this too may reflect lower baseline vigilance.”
BackgroundAge-related changes in intestinal immunity and the microbiome
Walrath, T., Dyamenahalli, K. U., Hulsebus, H. J., McCullough, R. L., Idrovo, J., Boe, D. M., McMahan, R. H., & Kovacs, E. J. (2020) · Journal of Leukocyte Biology · doi:10.1002/jlb.3ri0620-405rr · Cited by 129
Aguilera, M., Vergara, P., & Martínez, V. (2013) · Neurogastroenterology & Motility · doi:10.1111/nmo.12154 · Cited by 119
Association of the Infant Gut Microbiome With Early Childhood Neurodevelopmental Outcomes
Sordillo, J. E., Korrick, S., Laranjo, N., Carey, V. J., Weinstock, G. M., Gold, D. R., O’Connor, G. T., Sandel, M. T., Bacharier, L. B., Beigelman, A., et al. (2019) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.0905 · Cited by 128
“The medians (ranges) for the ASQ-3 scores were as follows: gross motor (60 [10-60]), fine motor (45 [0-60]), communication (55 [0-60]), personal and social skills (55 [20-60]), and problem solving (60 [5-60]).”
BackgroundGut Dysbiosis and Neurobehavioral Alterations in Rats Exposed to Silver Nanoparticles
Javurek, A. B., Suresh, D., Spollen, W. G., Hart, M. L., Hansen, S. A., Ellersieck, M. R., Bivens, N. J., Givan, S. A., Upendran, A., Kannan, R., et al. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-02880-0 · Cited by 133
Hata, T., Miyata, N., Takakura, S., Yoshihara, K., Asano, Y., Kimura-Todani, T., Yamashita, M., Zhang, X.-T., Watanabe, N., Mikami, K., et al. (2019) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2019-00408 · Cited by 116
The relation between cesarean birth and child cognitive development
Polidano, C., Zhu, A., & Bornstein, J. C. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-10831-y · Cited by 119
Cattane, N., Richetto, J., & Cattaneo, A. (2018) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.07.001 · Cited by 129
Gut microbial communities modulating brain development and function
Al‐Asmakh, M., Anuar, F., Zadjali, F., Rafter, J. J., & Pettersson, S. (2012) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.4161/gmic.21287 · Cited by 120
“, showed that memory dysfunction in Citrobacter rodentium infected mice was prevented by daily treatment with probiotics.(33) The study also showed a deficit in nonspatial and working memory in GF mice even in the absence of stress.”
BackgroundMetabolic tinkering by the gut microbiome
Selkrig, J., Wong, P., Zhang, X., & Pettersson, S. (2014) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.4161/gmic.28681 · Cited by 120
Metadata
- Authors
- Gareau, M. G., Wine, E., Rodrigues, D. M., Cho, J. H., Whary, M. T., Philpott, D. J., MacQueen, G., & Sherman, P. M.
- Affiliations
- Hospital for Sick Children (CA)
- University of Alberta (CA)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Sherman, Philip M
- ORCID
- Venue
- Gut
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2010-10-21
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 307-317
- ISSN
- 0017-5749 (ISSN-L)
- 1468-3288
- OpenAlex
- W2170856053
- Cited by
- 909
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 53 · 2024: 72 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 94 · 2021: 91 · 2020: 113 · 2019: 79 · 2018: 73 · 2017: 62 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 7.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- Gut (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
- Keywords
- enteric bacterial infection, Citrobacter rodentium, gut microbiota, germ-free mice, non-spatial memory, anxiety, water avoidance stress, probiotics, gut-brain axis, acute stress
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Anxiety, Behavior, Animal, Colon, Corticosterone, Enterobacteriaceae Infections, Feces, Female, Germ-Free Life, Hippocampus, Hyperplasia, Memory Disorders, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Stress, Psychological, Cytokines, Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-fos, Inflammation Mediators, Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, Probiotics, Citrobacter rodentium, Mice
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