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Cited by 26Social Robot Interaction and HRIDigital Mental Health InterventionsInnovative Human-Technology Interaction

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 125 of the 125 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 87 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Mental Health Impacts of AI Companions: Triangulating Social Media Quasi-Experiments, User Perspectives, and Relational Lens

Open access
Yuan, Yunhao, Zhang, Jiaxun, Aledavood, Talayeh, Zhang, Renwen, Saha, Koustuv·2026·Proceedings of the 2026 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
DOI 10.1145/3772318.3790558
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Abstract

AI-powered companion chatbots (AICCs) such as Replika are increasingly popular, offering empathetic interactions, yet their psychosocial impacts remain unclear. We examined how engaging with AICCs shaped wellbeing and how users perceived these experiences. First, we conducted a large-scale quasi-experimental study of longitudinal Reddit data, applying stratified propensity score matching and Difference-in-Differences regression. Findings revealed mixed effects—greater grief expression and interpersonal focus, alongside increases in language about loneliness, depression, and suicidal ideation. Second, we complemented these results with 18 semi-structured interviews, which we thematically analyzed and contextualized using Knapp’s relationship development model. We identified trajectories of initiation, escalation, and bonding, wherein AICCs provided emotional validation and social rehearsal but also carried risks of over-reliance and withdrawal. Triangulating across methods, we offer design implications for AI companions that scaffold healthy boundaries, support mindful engagement, support disclosure without dependency, and surface relationship stages—maximizing psychosocial benefits while mitigating risks.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper triangulates a large-scale Reddit quasi-experiment with 18 user interviews to examine how AI companion chatbots (AICCs) shape psychosocial wellbeing. It finds mixed effects: greater grief expression, interpersonal focus, and readability alongside increased language about loneliness, depression, and suicidal ideation, with interviews showing emotional validation but also risks of over-reliance and withdrawal.

Key findings

  • In the Reddit quasi-experiment, AICC engagement was associated with increased grief-related language: grief-valence ATE was 2.17% vs Control-LLM, 15.77% vs Control-VA, and 6.52% vs Control-NAI; grief-activation ATE was 3.45 vs Control-LLM, 17.71% vs Control-VA, and 7.67 vs Control-NAI.
  • Symptomatic expressions increased, especially suicidal ideation and loneliness: suicidal ideation ATE was 51.89% vs Control-LLM, 28.28% vs Control-VA, and 37.67% vs Control-NAI; loneliness ATE was 91.02% vs Control-LLM, 105.92% vs Control-VA, and 63.26% vs Control-NAI.
  • Behavioral and cognitive outcomes were mixed: interactivity decreased vs Control-VA (ATE = -18.29%; DiD = -0.58%), topical diversity decreased vs Control-LLM (ATE = -0.99%; DiD = -0.23%) and Control-VA (ATE = -0.44%; DiD = -0.21%), posting frequency increased vs Control-VA (ATE = 33.00%; DiD = 49.66%), and readability improved vs Control-VA (ATE = 4.59%; DiD = 149.28%). Interpersonal focus increased across all comparisons (ATE = 10.22 vs Control-LLM, 13.47 vs Control-VA, 12.89 vs Control-NAI).
  • Interviews with 18 AICC users identified trajectories of initiation, escalation, and bonding; AICCs provided emotional validation, safe self-disclosure, and social rehearsal, but also risks of over-reliance, emotional discomfort, stigma, and social withdrawal. Participants reported moderate loneliness on the UCLA 3-item scale (lack companionship M = 2.28, SD = 0.57; left out M = 2.17, SD = 0.62; isolated M = 2.28, SD = 0.67).

Methods

  • Longitudinal Reddit quasi-experiment: collected r/replika posts from January 1, 2023 to February 1, 2025 (47,923 posts from 10,643 unique users), identified 3,451 active Replika users via self-disclosed phrases “my Replika” or “my Rep,” and collected one year before/after treatment. Controls included Control-LLM (16,911,578 posts/comments from 13,383 users), Control-VA (22,349,334 posts/comments from 13,016 users), and Control-NAI (10,055 users with 21,368,841 posts/comments); 45 multi-group users were excluded.
  • Causal inference used stratified propensity score matching, Average Treatment Effect estimation, and Difference-in-Differences regression. Matching balance improved from maximum SMD 0.42 unmatched to 0.23 matched across 70 valid strata; parallel trends were visually inspected.
  • Qualitative component: 18 semi-structured one-hour remote interviews with US AICC users aged 18+, recruited via Reddit and Facebook (573 responses between April and June 2025), with fraud validation and demographic balancing. Transcripts were inductively coded and thematically analyzed, then interpreted with Knapp’s relational development model.

Limitations

  • The paper states the quantitative component focused exclusively on Replika users, limiting generalizability to other AI companion platforms; interviews referenced Character.AI, My AI, and others, but systematic cross-platform comparison remains open.
  • The paper states reliance on public social media data and online recruitment introduces self-selection and platform sampling biases, likely overrepresenting more engaged, digitally active, and less stigmatized users; interview samples also reflect demographic skews of English-speaking online communities, with Reddit users tending younger and more male-leaning.
  • The paper states the study remains observational and cannot establish true causality, with possible unmeasured confounds such as concurrent life events or offline social changes. The text also makes evident that treatment identification relied on self-disclosed phrases, which may miss users, and that the classifiers/lexicons used to infer psychosocial signals are probabilistic, context-sensitive, and may not equally capture marginalized groups.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1145/3772318.3790558

Cites

125 of 125 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 87 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    AICCs provided safe spaces for self-expression.

    “While AICCs provided emotional validation, safe spaces for self-expression, and opportunities for social confidence, they also introduced risks of over-reliance, emotional discomfort, stigma, and social withdrawal that evolve with the depth of the relationship.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Engaging with AICCs increased grief-related language.

    “Findings revealed mixed effects-greater grief expression and interpersonal focus, alongside increases in language about loneliness, depression, and suicidal ideation.”
    • Also stated in: § 1 Introduction · plain
      “Our analysis revealed mixed psychosocial effects of engaging with AICCs: users showed increased grief-related language, higher interpersonal focus, but also increased symptomatic expressions of depression, loneliness, and suicidal ideation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Engaging with AICCs increased language about loneliness.

    “Findings revealed mixed effects-greater grief expression and interpersonal focus, alongside increases in language about loneliness, depression, and suicidal ideation.”
    • Also stated in: § 1 Introduction · plain
      “Our analysis revealed mixed psychosocial effects of engaging with AICCs: users showed increased grief-related language, higher interpersonal focus, but also increased symptomatic expressions of depression, loneliness, and suicidal ideation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Engaging with AICCs increased language about depression.

    “Findings revealed mixed effects-greater grief expression and interpersonal focus, alongside increases in language about loneliness, depression, and suicidal ideation.”
    • Also stated in: § 1 Introduction · plain
      “Our analysis revealed mixed psychosocial effects of engaging with AICCs: users showed increased grief-related language, higher interpersonal focus, but also increased symptomatic expressions of depression, loneliness, and suicidal ideation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    AICCs carried risks of social withdrawal that evolve with the depth of the relationship.

    “but also carried risks of over-reliance and withdrawal.”
    • Also stated in: § 1 Introduction · plain
      “they also introduced risks of over-reliance, emotional discomfort, stigma, and social withdrawal that evolve with the depth of the relationship.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 46
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 73

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    Participants reported moderate levels of loneliness across all three UCLA items on average.

    “Table 3 summarizes the responses, revealing that participants reported moderate levels of loneliness across all three items, on average.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    The interview sample included a higher proportion of male participants than female participants.

    “We observed that our sample included a higher proportion of male participants than female participants; this pattern is plausibly reflective of publicly reported demographic trends of Replika's user base, which is known to be predominantly male [65].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Early-stage interactions often foster a safe space for self-disclosure, escalating engagement introduces deeper forms of emotional support and validation, and as relationships intensify, users confront emotional discomfort that may become more pronounced during later stages.

    “Early-stage interactions often foster a safe space for self-disclosure (Section 5.2.2), and then escalating engagement introduces deeper forms of emotional support and validation (Section 5.2.3).As relationships intensify, users also confront emotional discomfort (Section 5.2.4), which may become more pronounced during later stages.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Many participants first turned to AICCs to overcome social isolation, finding in them a low-risk partner for early experimentation with interaction.

    “Many participants first turned to AICCs to overcome social isolation, finding in them a low-risk partner for early experimentation with interaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Treatment users showed a significant decrease in symptomatic anxiety expressions compared to Control-VA users (ATE=-20.27%) but non-significant effects relative to Control-LLM and Control-NAI.

    “For symptomatic expressions of anxiety, Treatment users showed a significant decrease compared to Control-VA users (ATE=-20.27%)but non-significant effects relative to Control-LLM and Control-NAI.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    AICCs serve as emotionally responsive partners that many users rely on for validation, comfort, and self-reflection, providing spaces where individuals can express complex feelings and reflect on their emotional experiences.

    “They serve as emotionally responsive partners that many users rely on for validation, comfort, and self-reflection.AICCs provide spaces where individuals can express complex feelings, orient their thoughts toward an attentive conversational partner, and reflect on their emotional experiences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    As relationships with AICCs intensify, users confront empathic inadequacies and emotional discomfort, which may become more pronounced during later stages as expectations rise and mismatches between users' emotional needs and the AI's limited responsiveness become more salient.

    “As relationships intensify, users also confront empathic inadequacies and emotional discomfort, which may become more pronounced during later stages as expectations rise, interactions deepen, and mismatches between users' emotional needs and the AI's limited responsiveness become more salient.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Posting frequency increased significantly among Treatment users relative to Control-VA users (ATE=33.00%; DiD=49.66%), but no significant change relative to Control-NAI users.

    “Posting frequency increased significantly relative to Control-VA users (ATE=33.00%;DiD=49.66%),suggesting enhanced engagement on Reddit, but no significant change relative to Control-NAI users.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Users' relationships with AICCs unfold across three adapted stages-Initial Interaction and Experimentation, Relationship Escalation, and Relationship Bonding-each characterized by distinct patterns of engagement and evolving impacts.

    “Guided by Knapp's model, we found that users' relationships with AICCs unfold across three adapted stages-Initial Interaction and Experimentation, Relationship Escalation, and Relationship Bonding-each characterized by distinct patterns of engagement and evolving impacts (Figure 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    DiD regression confirmed significant increases in symptomatic suicide ideation relative to Control-LLM (DiD=1.39%), Control-VA (DiD=0.95%), and Control-NAI (DiD=0.61%).

    “DiD regression confirms significant increases relative to both control groups (Control-LLM: DID=1.39%,Control-VA: DiD = 0.95%; Control-NAI: DiD = 0.61%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    DiD regression confirmed a significant post-treatment increase in grief-valence relative to Control-LLM (DiD=6.68%) and Control-VA (DiD=7.58%), but not to Control-NAI.

    “DiD regression further confirmed a significant post-treatment increase in grief-valence relative to Control-LLM (DiD=6.68%)and Control-VA (DiD=7.58%),but not to Control-NAI.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Complexity among Treatment users slightly decreased relative to Control-LLM users, but statistical tests showed no significant differences compared with either Control-VA or Control-NAI users.

    “Complexity among Treatment users slightly decreased relative to Control-LLM users; however, statistical tests showed no significant differences compared with either Control-VA or Control-NAI users.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Many users turn to AICCs during emotionally difficult times as a means of coping and reducing stress, describing them as tools for emotional self-regulation that reinforced self-affirmation and encouraged a more optimistic perspective on life.

    “Many users turn to AICC during emotionally difficult times as a means of coping and reducing stress.AICCs were described as tools for emotional self-regulation, offering mindfulness suggestions, mood tracking, and personalized encouragement.These interactions reinforced their self-affirmation and encouraged a more optimistic perspective on life.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Participants described turning to AICCs for emotional comfort and a sense of being heard, with AICCs providing a simulated sense of presence that fulfilled companionship needs, particularly in moments of loneliness or disconnection.

    “Participants described turning to AICCs for emotional comfort and a sense of being heard.AICCs provided a simulated sense of presence that fulfilled companionship needs, particularly in moments of loneliness or disconnection.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Topical diversity decreased significantly among Treatment users compared to Control-LLM (ATE=-0.99%; DiD=-0.23%) and Control-VA users (ATE=-0.44%; DiD=-0.21%), with no significant change relative to Control-NAI users.

    “Topical diversity decreased significantly among Treatment users compared to Control-LLM (ATE=-0.99%;DiD=-0.23%) and Control-VA users (ATE=-0.44%;DiD = -0.21%),with no significant change relative to Control-NAI users.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    DiD regression showed a modest but significant post-treatment increase in affective word usage relative to Control-VA (DiD = 0.23%), but not relative to Control-LLM or Control-NAI.

    “Results from the DiD regression confirmed the post-treatment change in affective word usage was modest but significant relative to Control-VA (DiD = 0.23%), whereas the increase relative to Control-LLM and Control-NAI did not show statistical significance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Treatment users showed non-significant decreases in symptomatic depression expressions relative to Control-VA users but substantial increases compared to Control-LLM (ATE=3.05%) and Control-NAI users (ATE=14.99%).

    “The use of symptomatic expressions of depression by Treatment users showed non-significant decreases relative to Control-VA users but substantial increases compared to Control-LLM (ATE=3.05%)and Control-NAI users (ATE=14.99%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    As users move beyond initial experimentation, engagement with AICCs often deepens into more personalized and emotionally significant relationships, characterized by increased personalization, deepening emotional reliance, enhanced opportunities for self-expression, and the emergence of both new benefits and salient risks.

    “As users move beyond initial experimentation, engagement with AICCs often deepens into more personalized and emotionally significant relationships.This stage is characterized by increased personalization, deepening emotional reliance, enhanced opportunities for self-expression, and the emergence of both new benefits and salient risks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Treatment users showed an increase in cognition and perception compared to Control-NAI (ATE=8.74%, d=0.23), with a significant difference also found relative to Control-LLM and Control-VA, but DiD regression showed no significant difference.

    “Within LIWC categories, Treatment users showed an increase in cognition and perception compared to Control-NAI (ATE=8.74%,𝑑=0.23), with a significant difference also found relative to Control-LLM and Control-VA.However, DiD regression showed no significant difference.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Treatment users showed non-significant results for symptomatic stress expressions against Control-LLM and Control-VA users, but moderate positive effects compared to Control-NAI (ATE=9.60%).

    “The use of symptomatic expressions of stress by Treatment users demonstrated non-significant results against Control-LLM and Control-VA users, but moderate positive effects compared to Control-NAI (ATE=9.60%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Interactivity increased slightly among Treatment users compared to Control-NAI users (ATE=8.71%), but no significant post-treatment DiD difference was observed.

    “Conversely, interactivity increased slightly compared to Control-NAI users (ATE=8.71%),but no significant post-treatment DiD difference was observed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The anonymity and predictability of AICC responses created a sense of emotional security that facilitated openness, with participants valuing the AICC's consistency, absence of judgment, and lack of interpersonal consequences.

    “The anonymity and predictability of AICC responses created a sense of emotional security that facilitated openness.Participants valued the AICC's consistency, absence of judgment, and lack of interpersonal consequences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Several participants observed that extended engagement with AICCs could slip into patterns of addictive use, along with social stigma and perceptions that accompanied it.

    “Several participants observed that extended engagement with AICCs could slip into patterns of addictive use, along with the social stigma and perceptions that accompanied it.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Repeatability marginally increased relative to Control-LLM, Control-VA and Control-VA users, but statistical tests revealed no significant changes.

    “Repeatability marginally increased relative to Control-LLM, Control-VA and Control-VA users, but statistical tests revealed no significant changes, suggesting limited impact on cognitive flexibility or expressive variability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    For some users, engagement with AICCs moves beyond casual interaction to the formation of strong emotional bonds, with the AICC occupying the role of an irreplaceable confidant or support system, and the prospect of losing access elicits strong negative emotions.

    “For some users, engagement with AICCs moves beyond casual interaction and routine support to the formation of strong emotional bonds, with the AICC occupying the role of an irreplaceable confidant or support system.At this stage, participants share highly personal experiences, disclose vulnerabilities, and report that the prospect of losing access to their AICCs elicits strong negative emotions”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Treatment users exhibited substantial increases in grief-valence compared to all Control groups (Control-LLM: ATE=2.17%, Control-VA: ATE=15.77%; Control-NAI: ATE=6.52%).

    “for grief-valence, Treatment users exhibited substantial increases compared to all Control groups (Control-LLM: ATE=2.17%,Control-VA: ATE=15.77%;Control-NAI: ATE = 6.52%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Participants described sharing sensitive personal information with their AICCs, but also expressed concerns about how their data was stored and potentially misused.

    “In our interviews, participants described sharing sensitive personal information with their AICCs, but also expressed concerns about how their data was stored and potentially misused.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Cognitively, we observed gains in interpersonal focus and temporal references, coupled with improvements in readability, suggesting clearer and more structured self-expression.

    “Cognitively, we observed gains in interpersonal focus and temporal references, coupled with improvements in readability, suggesting clearer and more structured self-expression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Stratified propensity score matching and Difference-in-Differences regression on large-scale Reddit data identified positive effects such as increased readability and cognitive and social language, as well as negative effects such as heightened depression, loneliness, and suicidal ideation expressions.

    “We adopted stratified propensity score matching and Difference-in-Differences regression on large-scale Reddit data, to identify both positive effects-such as increased readability, and cognitive and social language, as well as negative effects-heightened depression, loneliness, and suicidal ideation expressions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Behaviorally, engagement became more frequent, with indicators of greater disclosure, but this was offset by declines in engagement of broader topic diversity, pointing to reduced outreach toward human ties.

    “Behaviorally, engagement became more frequent, indicators of greater disclosure-yet this was offset by declines in engagement of broader topic diversity, pointing to reduced outreach toward human ties.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    For other users, AICCs provide practice grounds for social skill-building or function as experimental spaces.

    “For others, they provide practice grounds for social skill-building or function as experimental spaces.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Interviews analyzed with Knapp's relationship development model showed that users often moved through stages of initiation, escalation, and bonding, where AICCs offered emotional validation but also raised concerns about dependency.

    “Our interviews, analyzed with Knapp's relationship development model, showed that users often moved through stages of initiation, escalation, and bonding, where AICCs offered emotional validation but also raised concerns about dependency.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Quotes were paraphrased to reduce traceability while maintaining context.

    “we have paraphrased quotes in the paper to reduce traceability, while maintaining context for readership.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Before analyzing datasets, all personally identifiable information was removed.

    “Before analyzing our datasets, we removed all personally identifiable information, and we have paraphrased quotes in the paper to reduce traceability, while maintaining context for readership.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The UCLA 3-Item Loneliness Scale is a widely used and validated measure.

    “The UCLA scale is a widely used and validated measure that assesses subjective feelings of loneliness and social isolation, with items rated on a 3-point Likert scale from”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Reddit data were collected from publicly available sources and usernames were anonymized with unique IDs.

    “We collected Reddit data from publicly available sources, anonymizing usernames with unique IDs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants gave informed consent, were assigned IDs, and could skip questions or withdraw without penalty.

    “In the user study, participants gave informed consent, were assigned IDs, and could skip questions or withdraw without penalty.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the authors' institution.

    “Our study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at our institution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Reddit's pseudonymous design and topic-centered structure support candid self-disclosure, seeking social connections, and sharing life experiences.

    “Its pseudonymous design and topiccentered structure are known to support candid self-disclosure, seek social connections, and share life experiences [4,22,57,105].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [4]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [22]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [57]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [105]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation

    The interview sample's gender pattern is plausibly reflective of Replika's user base.

    “this pattern is plausibly reflective of publicly reported demographic trends of Replika's user base, which is known to be predominantly male [65].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductcitation

    45 users whose posting histories indicated activity across multiple groups were excluded to ensure mutually exclusive groups.

    “To ensure mutually exclusive groups, we additionally excluded 45 users whose posting histories indicated activity across multiple groups, consistent with prior work [105, 138].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [105]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [138]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Stratified propensity score matching and Difference-in-Differences regression were applied to estimate causal effects.

    “To estimate causal effects, we applied stratified propensity score matching and difference-in-differences regression.”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “applying stratified propensity score matching and Difference-in-Differences regression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The quasi-experimental causal estimates are valid only if there are no unmeasured confounders and the parallel trends assumption holds.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    AI-powered companion chatbots (AICCs) such as Replika are increasingly popular.

    “AI-powered companion chatbots (AICCs) such as Replika are increasingly popular, offering empathetic interactions, yet their psychosocial impacts remain unclear.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [133]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Replika's user base is predominantly male.

    “this pattern is plausibly reflective of publicly reported demographic trends of Replika's user base, which is known to be predominantly male [65].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Validation questions about AICC usage were used to verify interested respondents and exclude inconsistent answers.

    “Following established guidelines for detecting fraud in online qualitative research [86], we used validation questions about AICC usage to verify interested respondents and excluded those who provided inconsistent answers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    Interview and survey approaches may suffer from recall bias and fail to reflect the long-term impacts of chatbot interactions.

    “Although these approaches capture users' subjective impressions, they may suffer from recall bias and fail to reflect the long-term impacts of chatbot interactions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    A grief lexicon developed in prior work was built using transfer learning on over 50K posts from grief-related subreddits.

    “we leveraged a grief lexicon developed in prior work [107], which was built using transfer learning on over 50K posts from grief-related subreddits (e.g., r/grief, r/GriefSupport).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [107]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    As the human-AICC relationship deepens, an intense psychological reliance develops, particularly during the Relationship Escalation and Bonding stages, which can introduce new risks.

    “As the human-AICC relationship deepens, an intense psychological reliance develops-particularly during the Relationship Escalation and Bonding stages-that can introduce new risks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study received 573 responses between April and June 2025.

    “We received 573 responses between April and June 2025.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Users often perceive Replika as non-judgmental, which encourages open self-disclosure without fear of social risk.

    “Skjuve et al. conducted interviews with Replika users and found that users often perceive the chatbot as non-judgmental, which encourages open self-disclosure without fear of social risk.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [113]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The symptomatic mental health classifiers achieved an average accuracy of approximately 0.90 on held-out data and have been validated in other studies.

    “The models demonstrate strong predictive performance, achieving an average accuracy of approximately 0.90 on held-out data, and have been validated in other studies [104,106].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [104]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [106]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data

    The Control-NAI dataset yielded 10,055 users with 21,368,841 Reddit posts/comments.

    “For each user in the Control-NAI, we collected timeline data spanning one year before and one year after the placebo date, yielding 10,055 users with 21,368,841 Reddit posts/comments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Prior research has linked increased use of psycholinguistic word classes to more positive psychological outcomes.

    “Prior research has linked increased use of these word classes to more positive psychological outcomes [20,89].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [20]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [89]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    AICCs operate through ongoing relational exchanges that may fundamentally alter users' social and emotional experiences.

    “Unlike traditional digital mental health interventions that follow established therapeutic frameworks, AICC operate through ongoing relational exchanges that may fundamentally alter users' social and emotional experiences in ways we do not yet fully understand.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Increased posting behavior may reflect greater levels of social engagement or extroversion, which has been linked to positive psychological and therapeutic outcomes in prior work.

    “Increased posting behavior may reflect greater levels of social engagement or extroversion, which has been linked to positive psychological and therapeutic outcomes in prior work [37,107].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [37]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [107]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The authors acknowledge that their perspectives as researchers may have influenced their interpretations.

    “We acknowledge that while we have taken the utmost care to capture and faithfully synthesize the participants' viewpoints, our perspectives as researchers may have influenced our interpretations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The team brings interdisciplinary research expertise in HCI, computational social science, AI ethics, and communication, and has prior experience in mental health.

    “The team brings interdisciplinary research expertise in the areas of HCI, computational social science, AI ethics, and communication, and has prior experience in working on the topics of mental health.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Prior work links higher linguistic complexity to better psychosocial wellbeing and greater repetition to emotional or cognitive strain.

    “Prior work links higher complexity to better psychosocial wellbeing and greater repetition to emotional or cognitive strain [104].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [104]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study triangulates quantitative and qualitative methods using a theory-driven lens grounded in psychosocial wellbeing, social support, and relational development model.

    “Situated within this space, our work triangulates quantitative and qualitative methods using a theory-driven lens grounded in psychosocial wellbeing, social support, and relational development model.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    AICCs are marketed as accessible and non-judgmental companions providing emotional support, companionship, and guidance in daily life.

    “AICCs are marketed as accessible and non-judgmental companions which provide emotional support, companionship, and guidance in daily life [113].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [113]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    r/replika is the largest AICC subreddit and includes more than 82,000 members as of December 2025.

    “Among them, r/replika is the largest and includes more than 82,000 members as of December 2025.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductown data

    18 participants took part in one-hour remote interviews.

    “In total, 18 participants took part in one-hour remote interviews.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    While AICCs may offer immediate comfort, their inability to foster reciprocal, sustained human connection can inadvertently reinforce cycles of isolation and withdrawal.

    “These examples show that while AICCs may offer immediate comfort, their inability to foster reciprocal, sustained human connection can inadvertently reinforce cycles of isolation and withdrawal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Sustained activity on Reddit would indicate greater social integration and ongoing community involvement.

    “Sustained activity would indicate a greater social integration and ongoing community involvement in online settings [130].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [130]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    For individuals who use AICCs to simulate social interactions, AICCs offer a safe environment to rehearse conversational scenarios, experiment with self-presentation, and build social confidence.

    “For these individuals, AICCs offer a safe environment to rehearse conversational scenarios, experiment with different modes of self-presentation, and incrementally build social confidence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    AICCs occupy a paradoxical space in users' social ecosystems, offering both new pathways to social engagement and risks of withdrawal from human relationships.

    “We found that AICCs occupy a paradoxical space in users' social ecosystems-offering both new pathways to social engagement and risks of withdrawal from human relationships.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Interactions with Replika can be personally rewarding, with users reporting positive effects on perceived wellbeing.

    “They also found that interactions with the chatbot can be personally rewarding, with users reporting positive effects on their perceived wellbeing [113].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [113]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Emotional support is often considered a core benefit of current AICCs.

    “Emotional support is often considered a core benefit of current AICCs [3,78].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [78]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The improved readability among Treatment users reflects increased clarity and better structured language, plausibly indicating cognitive enhancement or emotional recovery.

    “Treatment individuals showed statistically improved readability compared to Control-VA users (ATE=4.59%DiD=149.28%),reflecting increased clarity and better structured language in expression, plausibly indicating cognitive enhancement or emotional recovery [37,107].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [37]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [107]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Prior research has highlighted that engaging with AICCs may impact social activity, online interactivity, and social connections.

    “Prior research has highlighted that engaging with AICCs may impact social activity, online interactivity, and social connections [46,71].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [46]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [71]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Combining behavioral and linguistic evidence from social media with participants' narrative accounts provides a deeper and more contextual understanding of the psychosocial consequences of AI companionship.

    “By combining behavioral and linguistic evidence from social media with participants' narrative accounts, we provide a deeper and more contextual understanding of the psychosocial consequences of AI companionship.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All interviews were recorded with participants' consent, and participants were permitted to turn off their video cameras for privacy and comfort.

    “All interviews were recorded with participants' consent, and participants were permitted to turn off their video cameras for privacy and comfort.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    AI companions have a dual nature, with both promise and risks in sensitive mental health contexts.

    “These results highlight the dual nature of AI companions, pointing to both their promise and their risks in sensitive mental health contexts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This behavioral shift may reduce the time and motivation in nurturing offline relationships, ultimately contributing to social withdrawal.

    “This behavioral shift may reduce the time and motivation in nurturing offline relationships, ultimately contributing to social withdrawal.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    When an AICC infers self-harm risk from conversation, an ethical tension arises between intervening and respecting user privacy and autonomy.

    “When an AICC infers self-harm risk from conversation, an ethical tension arises between intervening (e.g., offering crisis resources or escalating to emergency services) and respecting user privacy and autonomy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    AI companions can scaffold affective expression, strengthen communicative consistency, and support linguistic fluency, but they also risk reinforcing social withdrawal and psychological vulnerability.

    “Overall, our findings highlight a dual trajectory: AI companions can scaffold affective expression, strengthen communicative consistency, and support linguistic fluency, but they also risk reinforcing social withdrawal and psychological vulnerability.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    Attachment-like dynamics became especially pronounced in the Relationship Escalation and Relationship Bonded phases, showing how one-sided responsiveness can foster dependency, offering short-term mood stabilization but at the cost of diminished engagement with human relationships.

    “Such attachment-like dynamics became especially pronounced in the Relationship Escalation and Relationship Bonded phases, showing how one-sided responsiveness can foster dependency: offering short-term mood stabilization but at the cost of diminished engagement with human relationships.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These contributions deepen ongoing conversations in HCI on the design, evaluation, and governance of AI systems in sensitive domains such as mental health, revealing both potential for support and limitations in fostering human-like connection.

    “Theoretically, these contributions deepen ongoing conversations in HCI on the design, evaluation, and governance of AI systems in sensitive domains such as mental health, revealing both potential for support and limitations in fostering human-like connection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    An AICC that adapts to a user's emotional state can reinforce healthy coping strategies, but it can just as easily reinforce avoidance patterns if the user increasingly substitutes AICC for human interaction.

    “A AICC that adapts to a user's emotional state can reinforce healthy coping strategies, but it can just as easily reinforce avoidance patterns if the user increasingly substitutes AICC for human interaction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Although stratified propensity score matching helped balance observed baseline characteristics between Treatment and Control groups, the study remains observational and cannot establish a true causality.

    “Finally, although stratified propensity score matching helped balance observed baseline characteristics between Treatment and Control groups, the study remains observational and cannot establish a true causality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The asymmetry of human-AICC relationships opens up new theories.

    “However, the asymmetry of human-AICC relationships opens up new theories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: AICC, unlike human partners, lack genuine subjectivity, shared memory, or reciprocal emotional labor.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overly aggressive or non-consensual escalation may deter candid disclosure, while insufficient response risks reinforcing a false sense of clinical oversight.

    “Overly aggressive or non-consensual escalation may deter candid disclosure, while insufficient response risks reinforcing a false sense of clinical oversight.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Emotional attachment to AICCs can provide immediate psychological support but also carries the risk of displacing human emotional bonds and reducing resilience to real-world social challenges.

    “While such attachment can provide immediate psychological support, it also carries the risk of displacing human emotional bonds and reducing resilience to real-world social challenges.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If AICCs rely on such models to detect distress, some users' suffering may be under-recognized, while others may be over-flagged.

    “If AICCs rely on such models to detect distress, some users' suffering may be under-recognized, while others may be over-flagged.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Users who post about AICC use on Reddit are likely more engaged, digitally active, and less stigmatized than the broader population of AICC users.

    “Users who post about AICC use on Reddit are likely more engaged, digitally active, and less stigmatized than the broader population of AICC users.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Theoretical accounts of relational development in HCI must account for relationships that can intensify without mutual effort, persist without logistical friction, and terminate not through interpersonal breakdown but through deletion, technical failure, or policy change.

    “In extending Knapp's model, our work suggests that theoretical accounts of relational development in HCI must account for relationships that can intensify without mutual effort, persist without logistical friction, and terminate not through interpersonal breakdown but through deletion, technical failure, or policy change [9,26,87].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [9]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [26]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [87]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Unlike most human bonds, which are established by cultural scripts, social obligations, and finite resources, AICC are primarily constrained by design parameters and shaped by individual interaction histories.

    “Crucially, unlike most human bonds, which are established by cultural scripts, social obligations, and finite resources, AICC are primarily constrained by design parameters and shaped by individual interaction histories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    AI relationship termination constitutes a psychologically meaningful phase that requires deeper empirical study through longitudinal designs engaging users who experience actual rupture or disengagement with AICCs.

    “These observations highlight that AI relationship termination constitutes a psychologically meaningful phase that requires deeper empirical study through longitudinal designs engaging users who experience actual rupture or disengagement with AICCs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Knapp's model provides a robust framework for understanding how human interpersonal relationships initiate, intensify, and bond.

    “Traditionally, Knapp's model provides a robust framework for understanding how human interpersonal relationships initiate, intensify, and bond [59].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The psychosocial dynamics observed in the study may not fully generalize to underrepresented groups or to the full diversity of AICC users.

    “As a result, the psychosocial dynamics observed in our study may not fully generalize to underrepresented groups or to the full diversity of AICC users.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    AICC relationships are uniquely malleable but also potentially destabilizing.

    “This makes them uniquely malleable but also potentially destabilizing [5].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The analyses identify psychosocial patterns at scale but are not diagnostic, should not be applied to individual users, and do not imply that AICC use is inherently beneficial or harmful for any given individual.

    “While analyses identify psychosocial patterns at scale, they are not diagnostic, should not be applied to individual users, and do not imply that AICC use is inherently beneficial or harmful for any given individual.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The findings may overrepresent more vocal or highly involved users while underrepresenting individuals who engage more privately, intermittently, or cautiously with these tools.

    “As a result, our findings may overrepresent more vocal or highly involved users while underrepresenting individuals who engage more privately, intermittently, or cautiously with these tools.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Misinterpretations of aggregate psychosocial patterns can lead to problematic applications, such as treating elevated loneliness or grief markers as defining characteristics of all AICC users, thereby reinforcing stigmatizing stereotypes.

    “Such (mis)interpretations can lead to problematic applications-for example, treating elevated loneliness or grief markers as defining characteristics of all AICC users, thereby reinforcing stigmatizing stereotypes about who turns to these systems and why.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    The study extends Knapp's relational development model into the human-AICC domain, revealing both critical parallels and distinctions between human-human and human-AICC relational development.

    “Our study extends Knapp's relational development model [59] into the human-AICC domain, revealing both critical parallels and distinctions between human-human and human-AICC relational development.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Reddit users tend to be younger and more male-leaning.

    “Reddit users tend to be younger and more male-leaning [90].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [90]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    Our work provides large-scale, quasi-experimental evidence that AICCs can provide emotional benefits while also introducing psychosocial risks.

    “Our work extends this literature with large-scale, quasi-experimental evidence showing that AICCs can provide emotional benefits while also introducing psychosocial risks, contributing to broader debates on their consequences [46,71,91] and the role of causal inference in computational social science [105,138].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [46]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [71]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [91]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [105]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [138]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Psychosocial measures inferred from Reddit language are validated for population-level research but remain inherently probabilistic, may misclassify, are context-sensitive, and can reflect training biases.

    “While such measures are validated for population-level research [105, 138], they remain inherently probabilistic: they may misclassify, are context-sensitive, and can reflect training biases.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [105]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [138]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The findings provide evidence on how AICCs shape wellbeing, highlight the relational dynamics of human-AI companionship, and suggest design directions for supporting healthy boundaries, mindful engagement, and relationship awareness to maximize benefits while reducing risks.

    “These findings provide evidence on how AICCs shape wellbeing, highlight the relational dynamics of human-AI companionship, and suggest design directions for supporting healthy boundaries, mindful engagement, and relationship awareness to maximize benefits while reducing risks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Much of the literature on AICCs has highlighted the value of accessible, nonjudgmental, and persistent support, largely through surveys and interviews.

    “Much of the literature on AICCs has highlighted the value of accessible, nonjudgmental, and persistent support, largely through surveys and interviews [9,12,32,70,84,113,114,122].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 8 sources checked
    • cites [9]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [12]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [32]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [70]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [84]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [113]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [114]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [122]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data

    The trajectories of Treatment, Control-VA, and Control-NAI users show no systematic divergence prior to the treatment event, supporting the validity of the difference-in-differences design.

    “The trajectories of Treatment, Control-VA, and Control-NAI users show no systematic divergence prior to the treatment event, supporting the validity of the DiD design.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
101 of 101

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The promise of mitigating loneliness and fostering a sense of connection has contributed to the growing popularity of AICCs.

    “This promise of mitigating loneliness and fostering a sense of connection has contributed to their growing popularity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The quasi-experimental causal estimates are valid only if there are no unmeasured confounders and the parallel trends assumption holds.

    “We applied a causal inference framework with stratified propensity score matching and Difference-in-Differences (DiD) regression to estimate treatment effects.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' interview self-reports accurately reflect their experiences with AICCs.

    “We conducted semi-structured interviews to examine how individuals engaged with AICCs and how such interactions shaped their emotional, behavioral, and social experiences.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    If two individuals are similar in relevant characteristics and external conditions, then any difference in outcome is plausibly associated with interaction with the AICC.

    “If two individuals (generalizable to groups) were similar in relevant characteristics and external conditions, then any difference in outcome was plausibly associated with interaction with the AICC.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The parallel trends assumption holds for the difference-in-differences analysis.

    “DiD analysis required the parallel trends assumption [66].We empirically verified this assumption, with results presented in the Appendix.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    It is practically impossible to identify a true counterfactual.

    “Given that it is practically impossible to identify a true counterfactual, the potential outcomes framework guides the identification of comparable (or Control) individuals based on pre-treatment characteristics.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    AICCs are increasingly positioned and marketed not only as technological tools but as relational partners that can influence individuals' personal lives and wellbeing.

    “AICCs exemplify this challenge-being increasingly positioned and marketed not only as technological tools but as relational partners that can influence individuals' personal lives and wellbeing.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    AICC, unlike human partners, lack genuine subjectivity, shared memory, or reciprocal emotional labor.

    “AICC, unlike human partners, lack genuine subjectivity, shared memory, or reciprocal emotional labor.”
8 of 8

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Affective-language DiD significance contradicts Table 4

    Major

    The text says the increase relative to Control-LLM was not statistically significant, but Table 4 marks its DiD estimate of 0.27 with three significance stars.

  • Topical-diversity ATE for Control-LLM differs from Table 4

    Minor

    The text reports a −0.99% ATE relative to Control-LLM, whereas Table 4 reports −0.36%.

  • Cognition-and-perception DiD significance contradicts Table 4

    Minor

    The text says the DiD regression showed no significant difference, but Table 4 marks the Control-NAI DiD estimate of 0.32 as significant.

  • Depression ATE for Control-LLM is misreported

    Minor

    The text reports 3.05% as the depression ATE relative to Control-LLM. Table 4 reports an ATE of 6.36%; 3.05 is the adjacent t-statistic.

  • Posting-frequency DiD versus Control-NAI is called nonsignificant

    Minor

    The text says posting frequency showed no significant change relative to Control-NAI, but Table 4 marks its DiD estimate of −12.79 as significant.

  • Topical-diversity DiD versus Control-NAI is called nonsignificant

    Minor

    The text says there was no significant change relative to Control-NAI, but Table 4 marks the Control-NAI DiD estimate, 0.19, as significant.

6 of 6

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 10

  1. Anna N Baglione, Maxine M Girard, Meagan Price, James Clawson, and Patrick C Shih. 2017. Mobile technologies for grief support: prototyping an application to support the bereaved. In Workshop on Interactive Systems in Health Care.
  2. Munmun De Choudhury, Michael Gamon, Scott Counts, and Eric Horvitz. 2013. Predicting depression via social media. In ICWSM.
  3. Julian De Freitas Ahmet K Uguralp Zeliha O Uguralp and Puntoni Stefano. 2024. AI companions reduce loneliness. arXiv preprint arXiv:https://arXiv.org/abs/2407.19096 (2024). · DOI · Paper page
  4. Philip R Doyle Iona Gessinger Justin Edwards Leigh Clark Odile Dumbleton Diego Garaialde Daniel Rough Anna Bleakley Holly P Branigan and Benjamin R Cowan. 2023. The Partner Modelling Questionnaire: A validated self-report measure of perceptions toward machines as dialogue partners. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (2023).
  5. Jihyun Kim Xianlin Jin Kun Xu Xiaobei Chen and Hocheol Yang. 2024. What do people say about Replika an AI chatbot on social media? Investigating diverse perspectives on the implications of Replika through a topic modeling analysis. The Social Science Journal (2024) 1–16.
  6. Zilin Ma, Yiyang Mei, and Zhaoyuan Su. 2024. Understanding the benefits and challenges of using large language model-based conversational agents for mental well-being support. In AMIA Annual Symposium Proceedings , Vol. 2023.
  7. Tomas Mikolov, Ilya Sutskever, Kai Chen, Greg S Corrado, and Jeff Dean. 2013. Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 3111–3119.
  8. Shoeb Ali Syed. 2024. The role of AI in alleviating loneliness among adults in the United States. International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) 8 04 (2024) 404–421.
  9. Robert Weiss. 1975. Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation. MIT press.
  10. Yutong Zhang Dora Zhao Jeffrey T Hancock Robert Kraut and Diyi Yang. 2025. The Rise of AI Companions: How Human-Chatbot Relationships Influence Well-Being. arXiv preprint arXiv:https://arXiv.org/abs/2506.12605 (2025). · arXiv

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Metadata

Authors
Yuan, Y., Zhang, J., Aledavood, T., Zhang, R., & Saha, K.
Affiliations
  • University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
  • Aalto University (FI)
  • Nanyang Technological University (SG)
ORCID
Venue
Proceedings of the 2026 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Publisher
ACM
Published
2026-04-13
Pages
1-22
DOI
10.1145/3772318.3790558
OpenAlex
W7127400060
Cited by
26
References
124
Citations by year
2026: 26
FWCI
123.42
Type
conference paper
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Aaltodoc (Aalto University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • arXiv (Cornell University)
Funders
  • Nanyang Technological University (NAP_SUG 025564-00001)
  • Helsinki Institute for Information Technology (HIIT 6_2024_02)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Innovative Human-Technology Interaction
Keywords
AI companions, Replika, mental health, well-being, loneliness, depression, suicidal ideation, grief expression, user perspective, overreliance on AI, social withdrawal, emotional validation, human-AI relationship

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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