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Superconducting Qubits: Current State of Play
Open accessAbstract
Superconducting qubits are leading candidates in the race to build a quantum computer capable of realizing computations beyond the reach of modern supercomputers. The superconducting qubit modality has been used to demonstrate prototype algorithms in the noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) technology era, in which non-error-corrected qubits are used to implement quantum simulations and quantum algorithms. With the recent demonstrations of multiple high-fidelity, two-qubit gates as well as operations on logical qubits in extensible superconducting qubit systems, this modality also holds promise for the longer-term goal of building larger-scale error-corrected quantum computers. In this brief review, we discuss several of the recent experimental advances in qubit hardware, gate implementations, readout capabilities, early NISQ algorithm implementations, and quantum error correction using superconducting qubits. Although continued work on many aspects of this technology is certainly necessary, the pace of both conceptual and technical progress in recent years has been impressive, and here we hope to convey the excitement stemming from this progress.
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“Not all cavity EO devices use this coupled-ring-resonator approach; other designs exploit neighboring longitudinal [264] or transverse [190,262,265] optical modes of a single optical resonator, but the principle of operation is the same.”
From Integrated photonics on thin-film lithium niobate (2021) · cites this paper as [264]
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QuFI: a Quantum Fault Injector to Measure the Reliability of Qubits and Quantum Circuits
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BackgroundA quantum dot in germanium proximitized by a superconductor
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“The performance of current superconducting quantum processors suffers greatly from decoherence of qubits that store and process quantum information [1–3].”
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Mun, J., Sushko, P. V., Brass, E., Zhou, C., Kisslinger, K., Qu, X., Liu, M., & Zhu, Y. (2023) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.3c10740 · Cited by 18
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“Nevertheless, our noise model captures the depolarizing effect of two-qubit gates, which is the dominant noise source across several platforms [39, 40].”
Quantum computers, quantum computing, and quantum thermodynamics
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Yousefjani, R., & Bayat, A. (2021) · Quantum · doi:10.22331/q-2021-05-26-460 · Cited by 17
“phasing times of such devises are T1'50−85 μs and T2'10−50 μs [41], respectively.”
Validity of Born-Markov master equations for single- and two-qubit systems
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Superconducting quantum interference devices
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Modelling Short-range Quantum Teleportation for Scalable Multi-Core Quantum Computing Architectures
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“Both quantum nodes and EPR generator work with parameters found in Table 1, taken from transmon superconducting qubit technology used in [11] and [7].”
MethodHybrid Rydberg quantum gate for quantum network
Liu, Y., Li, L., & Ma, Y. (2022) · Physical Review Research · doi:10.1103/physrevresearch.4.013008 · Cited by 16
Enhanced-Fidelity Ultrafast Geometric Quantum Computation Using Strong Classical Drives
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“For natural or artificial atoms, we can choose decoherence rates γ = γφ = 2π × 1 MHz [5, 15, 17, 18, 65, 66].”
InfluentialWeak spin-flip scattering in Pd89Ni11 interlayer of NbN-based ferromagnetic Josephson junctions
Pham, D., Sugimoto, R., Oba, K., Takeshita, Y., Li, F., Tanaka, M., Yamashita, T., & Fujimaki, A. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-10967-6 · Cited by 16
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“superconducting [6], [7] and spin qubits [8]–[10] – lays out requirements on signal-to-noise ratio, frequency bandwidth, as well as saturation power of the amplifier chain.”
BackgroundSelf-citationFloquet generation of a magnonic NOON state
Qi, S.-F., & Jing, J. (2023) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.107.013702 · Cited by 16
“, the pulse duration is nearly 10 ns [59]).”
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“This implies that it should be already feasible to perform experiments to observe QI in SE from superconducting qubits [115] and quantum dots [116–124], which radiate in the terahertz and optical regimes (SM Section III).”
A cellular automaton decoder for a noise-bias tailored color code
Miguel, J. F. S., Williamson, D. J., & Brown, B. J. (2023) · Quantum · doi:10.22331/q-2023-03-09-940 · Cited by 18
“Such values are in line with some experimental qubit implementations[23, 45].”
ResultQuantum-classical eigensolver using multiscale entanglement renormalization
Miao, Q., & Barthel, T. (2023) · Physical Review Research · doi:10.1103/physrevresearch.5.033141 · Cited by 19
“In the ion-trap and superconducting systems, CNOT is implemented using an effective Ising ˆ σ α ⊗ ˆ σ α interaction with rotation angle θ = π/ 2 [77–80].”
BackgroundLiang, G.-H., Song, X., Deng, C.-L., Gu, X.-Y., Yan, Y., Mei, Z.-Y., Zhao, S.-L., Bu, Y.-Z., Xiao, Y.-X., Yu, Y.-H., et al. (2023) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/physrevapplied.20.044028 · Cited by 16
Self-citationZhang, J., Ferguson, R., Kühn, S., Haase, J. F., Wilson, C. M., Jansen, K., & Muschik, C. A. (2023) · Quantum · doi:10.22331/q-2023-10-23-1148 · Cited by 23
“The sources of error on the microwave-photon platform are similar to other gate-based superconducting processors and as a result we can expect a similar performance [69].”
BackgroundHierarchical hydrodynamics in long-range multipole-conserving systems
Gliozzi, J., May-Mann, J., Hughes, T. L., & Tomasi, G. D. (2023) · Physical review. B./Physical review. B · doi:10.1103/physrevb.108.195106 · Cited by 20
Noncyclic nonadiabatic geometric quantum gates in a superconducting circuit
Ma, Z., Xu, J., Chen, T., Zhang, Y., Zheng, W., Li, S., Lan, D., Xue, Z., Tan, X., & Yu, Y. (2023) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/physrevapplied.20.054047 · Cited by 19
Quantum non-Gaussian optomechanics and electromechanics
Rakhubovsky, A. A., Moore, D. W., & Filip, R. (2023) · Progress in Quantum Electronics · doi:10.1016/j.pquantelec.2023.100495 · Cited by 16
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“For instance, within superconducting circuits [20], early designs included the quantronium after which came the transmon (now the de facto standard) but other designs include the fluxonium (with state of the art characteristics), the gatemon or the bosonic qubits (that aim at implementing, at least…”
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Classical chaos in quantum computers
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Geometric entanglement of a photon and spin qubits in diamond
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Design of strongly nonlinear graphene nanoelectromechanical systems in quantum regime
Lee, J., LaHaye, M., & Feng, P. X. ‐. (2022) · Applied Physics Letters · doi:10.1063/5.0069561 · Cited by 15
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“The coherence time of the state-ofthe-art superconducting qubits has reached more than 100 μs even in multi-qubit devices [1].”
BackgroundQuantum Maxwell's demon assisted by non-Markovian effects
Poulsen, K., Majland, M., Lloyd, S., Kjærgaard, M., & Zinner, N. T. (2022) · Physical review. E · doi:10.1103/physreve.105.044141 · Cited by 16
Speed limits for two-qubit gates with weakly anharmonic qubits
Ashhab, S., Yoshihara, F., Fuse, T., Yamamoto, N., Lupaşcu, A., & Semba, K. (2022) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.105.042614 · Cited by 16
Distributed Quantum Computing: Applications and Challenges
Boschero, J. C., Neumann, N. M. P., van der Schoot, W., Sijpesteijn, T., & Wezeman, R. S. (2025) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-92602-0_6 · Cited by 15
“As of today, the systems that have undergone experimental controllable and coherent quantum manipulation include trapped ions [59], atoms [60], spin systems [61] and superconducting circuits [62, 63].”
Josephson diode effect with Andreev and Majorana bound states
Mondal, S., Fu, P.-H., & Cayao, J. (2025) · Physical review. B./Physical review. B · doi:10.1103/79tj-c3y4 · Cited by 16
Kotthoff, F., Pollmann, F., & Tomasi, G. D. (2021) · Physical review. B./Physical review. B · doi:10.1103/physrevb.104.224307 · Cited by 16
Brown, J., Paternostro, M., & Ferraro, A. (2022) · Quantum Science and Technology · doi:10.1088/2058-9565/acb2f2 · Cited by 19
Quantum Computing: Principles and Applications
Feng, G., Lu, D., Li, J., Xin, T., & Zeng, B. (2023) · SPIN · doi:10.1142/s2010324723300013 · Cited by 18
Probing the symmetry breaking of a light–matter system by an ancillary qubit
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Xiao, X., Zhao, H., Ren, J., Fang, W., & Li, Z. (2024) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.3c00966 · Cited by 21
Observation of nonvolatile magneto-thermal switching in superconductors
Arima, H., Kasem, M. R., Sepehri‐Amin, H., Ando, F., Uchida, K., Kinoshita, Y., Tokunaga, M., & Mizuguchi, Y. (2024) · Communications Materials · doi:10.1038/s43246-024-00465-9 · Cited by 15
“Althoughthe working temperature of superconductors is quite low, they are potentially suitable for the thermal management of low-temperature electronic devices 11,12 .”
Many-Body Entropies and Entanglement from Polynomially Many Local Measurements
Vermersch, B., Ljubotina, M., Cirac, J. I., Zoller, P., Serbyn, M., & Piroli, L. (2024) · Physical Review X · doi:10.1103/physrevx.14.031035 · Cited by 15
Readout error mitigated quantum state tomography tested on superconducting qubits
Aasen, A. S., Giovanni, A. D., Rotzinger, H., Ustinov, A. V., & Gärttner, M. (2024) · Communications Physics · doi:10.1038/s42005-024-01790-8 · Cited by 17
“Wehavepresented acomprehensiveschemeforreadouterrormitigationin the framework of quantum state tomography.”
BackgroundJosephson Junctions, Superconducting Circuits, and Qubit for Quantum Technologies
Citro, R., Guarcello, C., & Pagano, S. (2024) · Lecture notes in physics · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-55657-9_1 · Cited by 15
Quantum Computing Through the Lens of Control: A Tutorial Introduction
Berberich, J., & Fink, D. (2024) · IEEE Control Systems · doi:10.1109/mcs.2024.3466448 · Cited by 22
Anomaly in Open Quantum Systems and its Implications on Mixed-State Quantum Phases
Wang, Z., & Li, L. (2025) · PRX Quantum · doi:10.1103/prxquantum.6.010347 · Cited by 15
Deterministic generation of two-dimensional multi-photon cluster states
O’Sullivan, J., Reuer, K., Grigorev, A., Dai, X., Hernández-Antón, A., Muñoz-Arias, M. H., Hellings, C., Flasby, A., Zanuz, D. C., Besse, J.-C., et al. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-60472-3 · Cited by 29
“Superconducting circuits 22,23 are an excellent platform for realizing devices capable of generating such multi-qubit cluster states 5,19 .”
Quantum interference device for controlled two-qubit operations
Loft, N. J. S., Kjærgaard, M., Kristensen, L. B., Andersen, C. K., Larsen, T. W., Gustavsson, S., Oliver, W. D., & Zinner, N. T. (2020) · npj Quantum Information · doi:10.1038/s41534-020-0275-3 · Cited by 18
Self-citationQuantum routing with fast reversals
Bapat, A., Childs, A. M., Gorshkov, A. V., King, S., Schoute, E., & Shastri, H. (2021) · Quantum · doi:10.22331/q-2021-08-31-533 · Cited by 15
Entangling magnon and superconducting qubit by using a two-mode squeezed-vacuum microwave field
Ning, C.-X., & Yin, M. (2021) · Journal of the Optical Society of America B · doi:10.1364/josab.437407 · Cited by 15
Quantum algorithm for MMNG-based DBSCAN
Xie, X.-M., Duan, L., Qiu, T., & Li, J. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-95156-7 · Cited by 15
Hybrid Hadamard and controlled-Hadamard based quantum random number generators in IBM QX
Salehi, R., Razaghi, M., & Fotouhi, B. (2022) · Physica Scripta · doi:10.1088/1402-4896/ac698b · Cited by 15
Weng, M., Yu, H., & Wang, Z. (2025) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.111.053711 · Cited by 14
Stabilizer Rényi Entropy and Conformal Field Theory
Hoshino, M., Oshikawa, M., & Ashida, Y. (2026) · Physical Review X · doi:10.1103/ylsz-dm3y · Cited by 16
“…of our results, the present framework also provides a predictive tool for analyzing nonstabilizerness in a wide range of quantum critical states, including those re-alizable in programmable quantum platforms such as Ryd-berg atom arrays [108], superconducting qubits [109], and trapped ions [110].”
Error-correction and noise-decoherence thresholds for coherent errors in planar-graph surface codes
Venn, F., & Béri, B. (2020) · Physical Review Research · doi:10.1103/physrevresearch.2.043412 · Cited by 15
He, Y., Shen, H., Michibayashi, S., Zou, X., Xie, X., Yan, L., Pan, W., & Yoshikawa, N. (2022) · Applied Physics Letters · doi:10.1063/5.0083972 · Cited by 14
Janzen, N., Kononenko, M., Ren, S., & Lupaşcu, A. (2022) · Applied Physics Letters · doi:10.1063/5.0103165 · Cited by 14
Performance of superconducting quantum computing chips under different architecture designs
Hu, W., Yang, Y., Xia, W., Pi, J., Huang, E., Zhang, X.-D., & Xu, H. (2022) · Quantum Information Processing · doi:10.1007/s11128-022-03571-0 · Cited by 15
“It has been widely agreed that the capacity of a quantum computer is not just determined by the number of qubits [14].”
BackgroundAnalytic approach to transport in superconducting junctions with arbitrary carrier density
Setiawan, F., & Hofmann, J. (2022) · Physical Review Research · doi:10.1103/physrevresearch.4.043087 · Cited by 14
“1(a)], are the elementary building blocks of superconducting qubits [1, 2] and quantum electronics [3] with wide-ranging applications in high-precision measurements [4, 5] and quantum computing [6].”
BackgroundOptimal quantum parametric feedback cooling
Manikandan, S. K., & Qvarfort, S. (2023) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.107.023516 · Cited by 14
Dynamical parity selection in superconducting weak links
Ackermann, N., Zazunov, A., Park, S., Egger, R., & Yeyati, A. L. (2023) · Physical review. B./Physical review. B · doi:10.1103/physrevb.107.214515 · Cited by 14
Modulation-based superradiant phase transition in the strong-coupling regime
Huang, J., & Tian, L. (2023) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.107.063713 · Cited by 14
Optimal quantum state tomography with noisy gates
Ivanova-Rohling, V. N., Rohling, N., & Burkard, G. (2023) · EPJ Quantum Technology · doi:10.1140/epjqt/s40507-023-00181-2 · Cited by 14
“Various physical hardware platforms are being developed for quantum computation [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8].”
BackgroundJoshi, K. R., Ghimire, S., Tanatar, M. A., Datta, A., Oh, J., Zhou, L., Kopas, C., Marshall, J., Mutus, J., Slaughter, J., et al. (2023) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/physrevapplied.20.024031 · Cited by 14
Zhou, C., Mun, J., Yao, J., Anbalagan, A. K., Hossain, M. D., McLellan, R. A., Li, R., Kisslinger, K., Li, G., Tong, X., et al. (2024) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202310280 · Cited by 14
Demonstration of microwave single-shot quantum key distribution
Fesquet, F., Kronowetter, F., Renger, M., Yam, W. K., Gandorfer, S., Inomata, K., Nakamura, Y., Marx, A., Groß, R., & Fedorov, K. G. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-51421-7 · Cited by 17
Fowler, J. W., Szypryt, P., Bunker, R., Edwards, E. R., Florang, I. M. F., Gao, J., Giachero, A., Hoogerheide, S. F., Loer, B., Mumm, H. P., et al. (2024) · PRX Quantum · doi:10.1103/prxquantum.5.040323 · Cited by 14
“Here we focus on superconducting qubits [1, 2] although some spin-based qubits also use silicon substrates [3].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kjaergaard, M., Schwartz, M. E., Braumüller, J., Krantz, P., Wang, J. I.-J., Gustavsson, S., & Oliver, W. D.
- Affiliations
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA;
- MIT Lincoln Laboratory (US)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Chalmers University of Technology (SE)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2020-03-10
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 369-395
- ISSN
- 1947-5454 (ISSN-L)
- 1947-5462
- OpenAlex
- W2947902637
- Cited by
- 1,544
- References
- 184
- Citations by year
- 2026: 233 · 2025: 333 · 2024: 269 · 2023: 230 · 2022: 219 · 2021: 192 · 2020: 68
- FWCI
- 7.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Chalmers Research (Chalmers University of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (FA8721-05-C-0002, 1720311)
- Office of the Director of National Intelligence
- Knut och Alice Wallenbergs Stiftelse
- Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (FA8721-05-C-0002)
- Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative (W911NF1810218)
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular and Translational Medicine
- Wallenberg Center for Quantum Technology, Chalmers University of Technology
- Army Research Office (W911NF-18-1-0116, W911NF1810218, W911NF-18-1-0411, W911NF-14-1, W911NF-141-0682, W911NF)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Information and Cryptography
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Quantum Computing Algorithms and Architecture
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Superconducting and THz Device Technology
- Keywords
- superconducting qubits, quantum computing hardware, noisy intermediate-scale quantum computing, two-qubit gate fidelity, qubit readout, logical qubits, quantum error correction, quantum algorithms, quantum simulation
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