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Superconducting Qubits: Current State of Play
Open accessAbstract
Superconducting qubits are leading candidates in the race to build a quantum computer capable of realizing computations beyond the reach of modern supercomputers. The superconducting qubit modality has been used to demonstrate prototype algorithms in the noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) technology era, in which non-error-corrected qubits are used to implement quantum simulations and quantum algorithms. With the recent demonstrations of multiple high-fidelity, two-qubit gates as well as operations on logical qubits in extensible superconducting qubit systems, this modality also holds promise for the longer-term goal of building larger-scale error-corrected quantum computers. In this brief review, we discuss several of the recent experimental advances in qubit hardware, gate implementations, readout capabilities, early NISQ algorithm implementations, and quantum error correction using superconducting qubits. Although continued work on many aspects of this technology is certainly necessary, the pace of both conceptual and technical progress in recent years has been impressive, and here we hope to convey the excitement stemming from this progress.
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“Not all cavity EO devices use this coupled-ring-resonator approach; other designs exploit neighboring longitudinal [264] or transverse [190,262,265] optical modes of a single optical resonator, but the principle of operation is the same.”
From Integrated photonics on thin-film lithium niobate (2021) · cites this paper as [264]
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“Superconducting circuits are the leading technology in the NISQ era [11].”
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InfluentialQuantum Computing and Simulations for Energy Applications: Review and Perspective
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Quantum Computing 40 Years Later
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Material matters in superconducting qubits
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Localization and Mitigation of Loss in Niobium Superconducting Circuits
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Factoring 2048-bit RSA Integers in 177 Days with 13 436 Qubits and a Multimode Memory
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The quantum Ising chain for beginners
Mbeng, G. B., Russomanno, A., & Santoro, G. E. (2024) · SciPost Physics Lecture Notes · doi:10.21468/scipostphyslectnotes.82 · Cited by 178
Probing quantum devices with radio-frequency reflectometry
Vigneau, F., Fedele, F., Chatterjee, A., Reilly, D. J., Kuemmeth, F., González-Zalba, M. F., Laird, E. A., & Ares, N. (2023) · Applied Physics Reviews · doi:10.1063/5.0088229 · Cited by 142
Midcircuit Operations Using the omg Architecture in Neutral Atom Arrays
Lis, J. W., Senoo, A., McGrew, W. F., Rönchen, F., Jenkins, A., & Kaufman, A. M. (2023) · Physical Review X · doi:10.1103/physrevx.13.041035 · Cited by 113
Negîrneac, V., Ali, H. A., Muthusubramanian, N., Battistel, F., Sagastizabal, R., Moreira, M. S., Marques, J., Vlothuizen, W., Beekman, M., Zachariadis, C., et al. (2021) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.126.220502 · Cited by 117
Crossing a topological phase transition with a quantum computer
Smith, A., Jobst, B., Green, A. G., & Pollmann, F. (2022) · Physical Review Research · doi:10.1103/physrevresearch.4.l022020 · Cited by 124
“Quantum computational technology is still in its infancy, with the state of the art in superconducting qubits consisting of approximately 100 qubits, 99% two-qubit gate fidelities, and coherence times of the order of 100 μs [6].”
BackgroundLow-loss interconnects for modular superconducting quantum processors
Niu, J., Zhang, L., Liu, Y., Qiu, J., Huang, W., Huang, J., Jia, H., Liu, J., Tao, Z., Wei, W., et al. (2023) · Nature Electronics · doi:10.1038/s41928-023-00925-z · Cited by 128
Quantum amplification and simulation of strong and ultrastrong coupling of light and matter
Qin, W., Kockum, A. F., Muñoz, C. S., Miranowicz, A., & Nori, F. (2024) · Physics Reports · doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2024.05.003 · Cited by 122
Quantum Crosstalk Analysis for Simultaneous Gate Operations on Superconducting Qubits
Zhao, P., Linghu, K., Li, Z., Xu, P., Wang, R., Xue, G., Jin, Y., & Yu, H. (2022) · PRX Quantum · doi:10.1103/prxquantum.3.020301 · Cited by 130
“1% [2, 6–13] have been demonstrated in various qubit architectures [2].”
BackgroundNanomaterials for Quantum Information Science and Engineering
Alfieri, A., Anantharaman, S. B., Zhang, H., & Jariwala, D. (2022) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202109621 · Cited by 110
Characterizing and Optimizing Qubit Coherence Based on SQUID Geometry
Braumüller, J., Ding, L., Vepsäläinen, A. P., Sung, Y., Kjærgaard, M., Menke, T., Winik, R., Kim, D. K., Niedzielski, B. M., Melville, A. J., et al. (2020) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/physrevapplied.13.054079 · Cited by 102
“During the last two decades – and lately at a more rapid pace – quantum circuits have become increasingly complex [3, 4].”
BackgroundSelf-citationSuperconducting Cavity Qubit with Tens of Milliseconds Single-Photon Coherence Time
Milul, O., Guttel, B., Goldblatt, U., Hazanov, S., Joshi, L. M., Chausovsky, D., Kahn, N., Çiftyürek, E., Lafont, F., & Rosenblum, S. (2023) · PRX Quantum · doi:10.1103/prxquantum.4.030336 · Cited by 107
“To date, single-photon states of three-dimensional microwave cavities are among the longest-lived qubits measured in any superconducting device, with coherence times exceeding 2 ms [6–8].”
BackgroundBenchmarking a trapped-ion quantum computer with 30 qubits
Chen, J.-S., Nielsen, E., Ebert, M., Inlek, V., Wright, K., Chaplin, V., Maksymov, A., Páez, E., Poudel, A., Maunz, P., et al. (2024) · Quantum · doi:10.22331/q-2024-11-07-1516 · Cited by 103
Building a Quantum Engineering Undergraduate Program
Asfaw, A., Blais, A., Brown, K. R., Candelaria, J., Cantwell, C., Carr, L. D., Combes, J., Debroy, D. M., Donohue, J. M., Economou, S. E., et al. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Education · doi:10.1109/te.2022.3144943 · Cited by 12
“Introductory and review articles exist at a wide spectrum of levels from graduate to professional QISE researchers [2], [3], [4], [5], and there are even a few graduate-level textbooks with hardware components, such as [83].”
BackgroundSelf-citationQuantum simulation of nonequilibrium dynamics and thermalization in the Schwinger model
de Jong, W. A., Lee, K., Mulligan, J. D., Ploskon, M. A., Ringer, F., & Yao, X. (2022) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.106.054508 · Cited by 137
Quantum computing for near-term applications in generative chemistry and drug discovery.
Pyrkov, A., Aliper, A., Bezrukov, D., Lin, Y.-C., Polykovskiy, D., Kamya, P., Ren, F., & Zhavoronkov, A. (2023) · Drug Discovery Today · doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2023.103675 · Cited by 100
Overcoming leakage in quantum error correction
Miao, K. C., McEwen, M., Atalaya, J., Kafri, D., Pryadko, L. P., Bengtsson, A., Opremcak, A., Satzinger, K. J., Chen, Z., Klimov, P. V., et al. (2023) · Nature Physics · doi:10.1038/s41567-023-02226-w · Cited by 99
“Superconducting transmon qubits [4, 5] represent a leading platform for implementing surface code QEC, with recent demonstrations of architectures compatible with QEC and capable of scaling [6–17].”
BackgroundKhatri, S., Brady, A. J., Desporte, R. A., Bart, M. P., & Dowling, J. P. (2021) · npj Quantum Information · doi:10.1038/s41534-020-00327-5 · Cited by 115
Huang, H.-L., Xu, X., Guo, C., Tian, G., Wei, S.-J., Sun, X., Bao, W., & Long, G. (2023) · Science China Physics Mechanics and Astronomy · doi:10.1007/s11433-022-2057-y · Cited by 111
Faster Digital Quantum Simulation by Symmetry Protection
Tran, M. C., Su, Y., Carney, D., & Taylor, J. M. (2021) · PRX Quantum · doi:10.1103/prxquantum.2.010323 · Cited by 112
“This digitalization error particularly affects Trotterization—the most common algorithm for near-term quantum simulations [1–3]—and persists even in more sophisticated, advanced quantum simulation algorithms [4–6].”
BackgroundHigh-Contrast Z Z Interaction Using Superconducting Qubits with Opposite-Sign Anharmonicity
Zhao, P., Xu, P., Lan, D., Chu, J., Tan, X., Yu, H., & Yu, Y. (2020) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.125.200503 · Cited by 100
Optically Heralded Entanglement of Superconducting Systems in Quantum Networks
Krastanov, S., Raniwala, H., Holzgrafe, J., Jacobs, K. A., Lončar, M., Reagor, M. J., & Englund, D. (2021) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.127.040503 · Cited by 91
“where ∆t is the duration of each pump pulse and tr is the time necessary for reset of the microwave cavity after each attempt (typically on the order of 1μs [39]).”
BackgroundInfluentialHexagonal boron nitride as a low-loss dielectric for superconducting quantum circuits and qubits
Wang, J. I.-J., Yamoah, M., Li, Q., Karamlou, A. H., Dinh, T. H., Kannan, B., Braumüller, J., Kim, D. K., Melville, A. J., Muschinske, S. E., et al. (2022) · Nature Materials · doi:10.1038/s41563-021-01187-w · Cited by 102
Self-citationGanjam, S., Wang, Y., Lu, Y., Banerjee, A., Lei, C. U., Krayzman, L., Kisslinger, K., Zhou, C., Li, R., Jia, Y., et al. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-47857-6 · Cited by 93
“The emergenceofsuperconducting qubits as a promising platformfor quantum computing has been facilitated by over two decades of steady improvements to coherence and gate fi delity 1 .”
BackgroundEnhanced coherence of all-nitride superconducting qubits epitaxially grown on silicon substrate
Kim, S., Terai, H., Yamashita, T., Qiu, W., Fuse, T., Yoshihara, F., Ashhab, S., Inomata, K., & Semba, K. (2021) · Communications Materials · doi:10.1038/s43246-021-00204-4 · Cited by 92
Review: Quantum metrology and sensing with many-body systems
Montenegro, V., Mukhopadhyay, C., Yousefjani, R., Sarkar, S., Mishra, U., Paris, M. G. A., & Bayat, A. (2025) · Physics Reports · doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2025.05.005 · Cited by 131
Kianinia, M., Xu, Z., Toth, M., & Aharonovich, I. (2022) · Applied Physics Reviews · doi:10.1063/5.0072091 · Cited by 91
Yazdani, A., von Oppen, F., Halperin, B. I., & Yacoby, A. (2023) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.ade0850 · Cited by 99
“Substantial advances in present qubit technologies, which are based on conventional super-conductors( 3 ),semiconductors( 4 ),trappedions ( 5 ), or Rydberg atoms ( 6 ), will undoubtedly be made in the years ahead.”
BackgroundTunable Cr 4+ Molecular Color Centers
Laorenza, D. W., Kairalapova, A., Bayliss, S. L., Goldzak, T., Greene, S. M., Weiss, L. R., Deb, P., Mintun, P. J., Collins, K. A., Awschalom, D. D., et al. (2021) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/jacs.1c10145 · Cited by 89
Whole‐Device Entanglement in a 65‐Qubit Superconducting Quantum Computer
Mooney, G. J., White, G. A. L., Hill, C. D., & Hollenberg, L. C. L. (2021) · Advanced Quantum Technologies · doi:10.1002/qute.202100061 · Cited by 99
“A variety of superconducting quantum devices [29] are hosted by IBM Quantum’s cloud service [30, 31], ranging in sizes from 1 to 65 qubits.”
BackgroundPractical Guide for Building Superconducting Quantum Devices
Gao, Y. Y., Rol, M. A., Touzard, S., & Wang, C. (2021) · PRX Quantum · doi:10.1103/prxquantum.2.040202 · Cited by 93
Pulse-efficient circuit transpilation for quantum applications on cross-resonance-based hardware
Earnest, N., Tornow, C., & Egger, D. J. (2021) · Physical Review Research · doi:10.1103/physrevresearch.3.043088 · Cited by 94
Benchmarking Coherent Errors in Controlled-Phase Gates due to Spectator Qubits
Krinner, S., Lazar, S., Remm, A., Andersen, C. K., Lacroix, N., Norris, G. J., Hellings, C., Gabureac, M. S., Eichler, C., & Wallraff, A. J. (2020) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/physrevapplied.14.024042 · Cited by 88
“Two-qubit gates are of particular importance since they limit the performance of state-of-the-art quantum processors [1, 2].”
BackgroundNanomagnonic Cavities for Strong Spin-Magnon Coupling and Magnon-Mediated Spin-Spin Interactions
Neuman, T., Wang, D. S., & Narang, P. (2020) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.125.247702 · Cited by 83
“The study of magnonics, or collective microwave excitations of electronic spins in ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials, has been spurred by advances in superconductor-based quantum systems that have enabled efficient high-fidelity control of quantum states of light and matter [1].”
BackgroundBengtsson, A., Vikstål, P., Warren, C., Svensson, M., Gu, X. Q., Kockum, A. F., Krantz, P., Križan, C., Shiri, D., Svensson, I.-M., et al. (2020) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/physrevapplied.14.034010 · Cited by 87
“Even though a large, fault-tolerant quantum computer is still many years away, impressive progress has been made over the last decade using superconducting circuits [2–4], leading to the noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) era [5].”
BackgroundSelf-citationA perspective on semiconductor-based superconducting qubits
Aguado, R. (2020) · Applied Physics Letters · doi:10.1063/5.0024124 · Cited by 79
Metadata
- Authors
- Kjaergaard, M., Schwartz, M. E., Braumüller, J., Krantz, P., Wang, J. I.-J., Gustavsson, S., & Oliver, W. D.
- Affiliations
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA;
- MIT Lincoln Laboratory (US)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Chalmers University of Technology (SE)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2020-03-10
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 369-395
- ISSN
- 1947-5454 (ISSN-L)
- 1947-5462
- OpenAlex
- W2947902637
- Cited by
- 1,544
- References
- 184
- Citations by year
- 2026: 233 · 2025: 333 · 2024: 269 · 2023: 230 · 2022: 219 · 2021: 192 · 2020: 68
- FWCI
- 7.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Chalmers Research (Chalmers University of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (FA8721-05-C-0002, 1720311)
- Office of the Director of National Intelligence
- Knut och Alice Wallenbergs Stiftelse
- Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (FA8721-05-C-0002)
- Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative (W911NF1810218)
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular and Translational Medicine
- Wallenberg Center for Quantum Technology, Chalmers University of Technology
- Army Research Office (W911NF-18-1-0116, W911NF1810218, W911NF-18-1-0411, W911NF-14-1, W911NF-141-0682, W911NF)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Information and Cryptography
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Quantum Computing Algorithms and Architecture
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Superconducting and THz Device Technology
- Keywords
- superconducting qubits, quantum computing hardware, noisy intermediate-scale quantum computing, two-qubit gate fidelity, qubit readout, logical qubits, quantum error correction, quantum algorithms, quantum simulation
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