Emotional Labor at a Crossroads: Where Do We Go from Here?

Grandey, Alicia A.; Gabriel, Allison S.

doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111400

Cited by 664Emotional Labor in ProfessionsJob Satisfaction and Organizational BehaviorEmployee Performance and Motivation

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 16 of the 16 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Emotional Labor at a Crossroads: Where Do We Go from Here?

Grandey, Alicia A., Gabriel, Allison S.·2015·Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior

DOI 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111400

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Three decades after its introduction as a concept, emotional labor—regulating emotions as part of the work role—is fully on the map in organizational behavior and organizational psychology. As research has accelerated, roadblocks, such as fuzzy construct conceptualizations, assumed but untested processes, and methodological stagnation, have emerged. To provide direction to new scholars and suggestions to seasoned emotional labor researchers, we review theoretical perspectives and evidence for emotional labor and its (a) construct development and measurement, (b) chronic and momentary determinants, (c) prediction of employee well-being, and (d) influence on organizational performance. On this path, we introduce emotional labor as a dynamic integration of three components (i.e., emotional requirements, emotion regulation, and emotion performance), interpret personal and organizational moderators, and point to innovative new methodological approaches. Overall, we provide a new road map to jump-start the field in exciting new directions.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111400

Cites

16 of 16 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Uber and Lyft workers often find their work emotionally taxing because they have to engage in emotional labor to gain favorable customer ratings.
“Research has shown that Uber and Lyft workers often find their work emotionally taxing (Malin & Chandler, 2017) because they have to engage in emotional labor to gain favorable customer ratings (Grandey & Gabriel, 2015;Marquis et al., 2018).”
From Gig work and gig workers: An integrative review and agenda for future research (2024) · cites this paper as Grandey & Gabriel, 2015

A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger, L. (1957) · doi:10.1515/9781503620766 · Cited by 24,241
The emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review
Gross, J. J. (1998) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 · Cited by 9,916
Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle?
Muraven, M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.247 · Cited by 4,510
The ripple effect: emotional contagion and its influence on group behavior
Barsade, S. G. (2002) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3094912 · Cited by 3,361
Dealing with feeling: a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation
Webb, T. L., Miles, E., & Sheeran, P. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0027600 · Cited by 2,006 · cited 2×
“Overall, the mismatch in concept and measurement may explain why relationships found for (person-level) surface acting and deep acting (Hülsheger & Schewe 2011) are sometimes contradictory with experimental (event/emotion-level) evidence (Webb et al. 2012).”
BackgroundResult
Emotional intelligence: An integrative meta-analysis and cascading model
Joseph, D. L., & Newman, D. A. (2010) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017286 · Cited by 1,722
Benefits of mindfulness at work: The role of mindfulness in emotion regulation, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction
Hülsheger, U. R., Alberts, H. J. E. M., Feinholdt, A., & Lang, J. W. B. (2013) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031313 · Cited by 1,433
SERVICE WITH A SMILE: EMOTIONAL CONTAGION IN THE SERVICE ENCOUNTER.
Pugh, S. D. (2001) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/3069445 · Cited by 1,393
The Importance of Being Flexible: The Ability to Both Enhance and Suppress Emotional Expression Predicts Long-Term Adjustment
Bonanno, G. A., Papa, A., Lalande, K., Westphal, M., & Coifman, K. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00705.x · Cited by 969 · cited 1×
“Another new approach in EI research is to directly measure the ability to enhance or suppress emotional expressions when instructed to; this ability seems to be effective for interpersonal functioning (Bonanno et al. 2004, Côté et al. 2010) and is likely to help at work as well.”
Background
Regulatory Focus Theory: Implications for the Study of Emotions at Work
Brockner, J., & Higgins, E. T. (2001) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.2001.2972 · Cited by 964
Automatic emotion regulation
Mauss, I. B., Bunge, S. A., & Gross, J. J. (2007) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00005.x · Cited by 538 · cited 1×
“However, emotion regulation (particularly cognitive regulation, known as deep acting)may become automatic and thus easier for the actor (Mauss et al. 2007).”
Background
Get mad and get more than even: When and why anger expression is effective in negotiations
Sinaceur, M., & Tiedens, L. Z. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.05.002 · Cited by 458
A classification of controlled interpersonal affect regulation strategies.
Niven, K., Totterdell, P., & Holman, D. (2009) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0015962 · Cited by 364
Willing and able to fake emotions: A closer examination of the link between emotional dissonance and employee well-being.
Pugh, S. D., Groth, M., & Hennig-Thurau, T. (2011) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021395 · Cited by 350
Emotional plasticity: Conditions and effects of improving emotional competence in adulthood.
Kotsou, I., Nelis, D., Grégoire, J., & Mikolajczak, M. (2011) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023047 · Cited by 335
On Angry Leaders and Agreeable Followers: How Leaders’ Emotions and Followers’ Personalities Shape Motivation and Team Performance
Van Kleef, G. A., Homan, A. C., Beersma, B., & van Knippenberg, D. (2010) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797610387438 · Cited by 162

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 135

10.1037/10173-023 · DOI
10.1007/s10869-013-9288-7 · DOI
10.1080/08959281003621695 · DOI
Arvey RD, 1998, Res. Pers. Hum. Resourc. Manag., 16, 103
10.2307/258824 · DOI
Ashkanasy NM, 2011, The SAGE Handbook of Leadership, 365
10.5465/AMJ.2006.23478695 · DOI · Paper page
Barsade SG, 2003, Organizational Behavior: The State of the Science, 3
Beal DJ, Trougakos JP. 2013. Episodic intrapersonal emotion regulation: or, dealing with life as it happens. See Grandey et al. 2013c, pp. 31–55
Becker WJ, Cropanzano R, Butts M. 2014. Emotion regulation in work teams: a social information processing approach . Presented at Annu. Conf. Soc. Ind. Organ. Psychol., 29th, May 15–17, Honolulu, HI
Bhave DP, 2015, J. Manag.
10.1177/0950017003017002004 · DOI
10.5465/amj.2011.0272 · DOI
10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.04.008 · DOI · Paper page
Bono JE, 2005, Emotions in Organizational Behavior, 213
10.1037/1076-8998.12.2.177 · DOI
10.1006/jvbe.2001.1815 · DOI
10.1037/1076-8998.7.1.57 · DOI
10.1348/096317903769647229 · DOI
10.5465/AMR.2008.31193163 · DOI
10.1002/job.617 · DOI
10.1037/a0022884 · DOI
10.5465/amr.2005.17293692 · DOI · Paper page
10.1177/0956797611416251 · DOI
10.1037/a0021156 · DOI
10.1002/job.174 · DOI
Côté S, Van Kleef GA, Sy T. 2013. The social effects of emotion regulation in organizations. See Grandey et al. 2013c, pp. 79–100
Dahling JJ, Johnson HM. 2010. Promoting good service: the effects of trait and state regulatory focus on emotional labor . Presented at Annu. Conf. Soc. Ind. Organ. Psychol., 25th, Apr. 8–10, Atlanta, GA
Dahling JJ, Johnson HM. 2013. Motivation, fit, confidence, and skills: How do individual differences influence emotional labor? See Grandey et al. 2013c, pp. 57–78
10.1016/j.paid.2009.12.009 · DOI
10.1080/08959280802137911 · DOI
10.1016/j.jvb.2004.02.001 · DOI
10.1037/a0021725 · DOI
10.1002/job.230 · DOI
Diefendorff JM, 2015, Appl. Psychol.
10.1007/s11031-010-9167-8 · DOI
10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.284 · DOI
10.1348/096317905X68484 · DOI
10.1016/j.jvb.2008.09.006 · DOI
10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00470.x · DOI
10.1037/0021-9010.87.5.963 · DOI
10.1177/0730888497024002004 · DOI
10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.11.001 · DOI
10.1007/s10869-013-9329-2 · DOI
10.1037/a0037408 · DOI
Gabriel AS, Diefendorff JM. 2015. Emotional labor dynamics: a momentary approach. Acad. Manag. J . In press. doi: 10.5465/amj.2013.1135 · DOI
10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.03.011 · DOI
10.1037/1076-8998.11.1.63 · DOI
10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.700 · DOI
10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00038-1 · DOI
10.1037/1076-8998.12.3.301 · DOI
10.1016/j.jvb.2011.03.001 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1256 · DOI
10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.95 · DOI
10.2307/30040678 · DOI · Paper page
10.1111/peps.12037 · DOI · Paper page
10.1002/job.637 · DOI
10.1002/job.252 · DOI
Grandey AA, Diefendorff JM, Rupp DE. 2013b. Bringing emotional labor into focus: a review and integration of three research lenses. See Grandey et al. 2013c, pp. 3–27
10.4324/9780203100851 · DOI
10.1016/j.obhdp.2004.08.002 · DOI
10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.893 · DOI
10.1037/a0025102 · DOI
Grandey AA, Houston L. 2013. Keepin’ it real: race and performance ratings of positive displays . Presented at Symp., Annu. Conf. Soc. Ind. Organ. Psychol., 28th, Apr. 11–13, Houston, TX
10.1037/1076-8998.12.1.63 · DOI
10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199337538.013.8 · DOI
10.1108/09564231011050805 · DOI
10.5465/amj.2011.0035 · DOI
10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 · DOI · Paper page
Groth M, 2005, J. Manag., 31, 7
Groth M, 2012, Organ. Psychol. Rev., 2, 208
10.5465/amj.2009.44634116 · DOI · Paper page
Hatfield E, 1994, Emotional Contagion
10.1509/jmkg.70.3.058 · DOI
10.1037//0003-066X.44.3.513 · DOI · Paper page
Hochschild AR, 1983, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling
10.1023/A:1015194108376 · DOI
10.1080/10615800903254091 · DOI
10.1037/a0021003 · DOI
10.1037/a0038229 · DOI
10.1037/a0022876 · DOI
10.1037/1076-8998.12.4.319 · DOI
10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.01129.x · DOI
10.1111/peps.12009 · DOI
10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.018 · DOI
10.1111/peps.12028 · DOI
10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00658.x · DOI
Maneotis S. 2014. Citizenship is in the eye of the beholder: citizenship from customers predicts employee strain depending on contextual and perceptual factors . PhD Thesis, Pa. State Univ., Univ. Park
10.1080/08959285.2013.854366 · DOI
10.1111/aphw.12009 · DOI
10.1002/job.1934 · DOI
McCance AS, 2013, J. Manag., 39, 392
Mesmer-Magnus JR, 2012, Organ. Psychol. Rev., 2, 6
10.1207/s15327043hup1904_2 · DOI
10.1007/s11031-012-9301-x · DOI
10.1177/0146167203029007008 · DOI
10.1002/job.1798 · DOI
Pugh SD, Diefendorff JM, Moran CM. 2013. Emotional labor: organization-level influences, strategies, and outcomes. See Grandey et al. 2013c, pp. 199–221
10.5465/amr.1987.4306444 · DOI
10.2307/256584 · DOI
Rupp DE, 2008, J. Manag., 34, 903
10.1037/0021-9010.91.4.971 · DOI
10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200003)21:2<163::AID-JOB37>3.0.CO;2-L · DOI
10.5465/AMJ.2011.59215086 · DOI
10.5465/amj.2010.1050 · DOI
10.1037/a0020723 · DOI
10.1037/a0013804 · DOI
10.2307/2393355 · DOI
10.2307/256456 · DOI
10.1037/0021-9010.90.2.295 · DOI
10.2307/20159579 · DOI
10.1037/0021-9010.85.6.848 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037/1076-8998.8.1.55 · DOI
10.1037/a0038082 · DOI
10.5465/AMJ.2008.30764063 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037/a0021880 · DOI
10.1177/014920630102700406 · DOI
10.1037/0021-9010.87.5.1001 · DOI · Paper page
10.1348/096317905X39666 · DOI
10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01633.x · DOI · Paper page
10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.57 · DOI
Van Kleef GA, 2012, Organ. Psychol. Rev., 2, 311
Van Maanen J, 1989, Res. Organ. Behav., 11, 43
10.1080/1359432X.2013.839548 · DOI
10.1111/peps.12044 · DOI · Paper page
10.1080/08959280802540957 · DOI
10.1037/a0034428 · DOI
10.5465/amj.2011.60263093 · DOI
10.1177/0730888493020002004 · DOI
10.2307/258905 · DOI
10.1111/j.1533-8525.1995.tb00440.x · DOI
10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.917 · DOI
10.1016/j.jvb.2009.05.001 · DOI
10.1111/j.2044-8325.2010.02011.x · DOI
10.1080/08959280701332034 · DOI

Sorted by citations

Working on my own: Measuring the challenges of gig work
Caza, B. B., Reid, E. M., Ashford, S. J., & Granger, S. (2022) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/00187267211030098 · Cited by 249
Gig work and gig workers: An integrative review and agenda for future research
Wu, D., & Huang, J. L. (2024) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2775 · Cited by 168
Affectivity, Emotional Labor, Emotional Exhaustion, and Emotional Intelligence in Coaching
Lee, Y. H., & Chelladurai, P. (2016) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2015.1092481 · Cited by 107
An Ethical Analysis of Emotional Labor
Barry, B., Olekalns, M., & Rees, L. (2019) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-018-3906-2 · Cited by 46
Emotional labor among team members: do employees follow emotional display norms for teams, not for customers?
Hong, D., & Kim, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1265581 · Cited by 7

Authors: Grandey, A. A., & Gabriel, A. S.
Affiliations: Pennsylvania State University (US)
Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
ORCID: Grandey, Alicia A.
Gabriel, Allison S.
Venue: Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2015-04-10
Volume: 2
Issue: 1
Pages: 323-349
ISSN: 2327-0608 (ISSN-L)
2327-0616
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111400
OpenAlex: W2118004681
Cited by: 664
References: 16
Citations by year: 2026: 86 · 2025: 87 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 61 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 10
FWCI: 13.41
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Emotional Labor in Professions
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Job Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Employee Performance and Motivation
Keywords: emotional labor, emotion regulation, employee well-being, organizational performance, moderators, construct measurement

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Emotional Labor at a Crossroads: Where Do We Go from Here?

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Metadata

Record

About these checks