Gig work and gig workers: An integrative review and agenda for future research

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Algorithmic management has been criticized for perpetuating low pay, social isolation, irregular working hours, and exhaustion.

“In addition, researchers also criticized algorithmic management for perpetuating low pay, social isolation, irregular working hours, and exhaustion (Wood et al., 2019).”

• cites Wood et al., 2019 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Gig workers have limited power to negotiate pay with digital labor platforms and are vulnerable to exploitation.

“Gig workers also have limited power to negotiate pay with digital labor platforms and are vulnerable to exploitation (Auer et al., 2021).”

• cites Auer et al., 2021 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract (page not provided) concludes that MTurk worker-participants are vulnerable to exploitation and have relatively low power to negotiate pay. The Introduction identifies them as gig-economy workers, but the study concerns MTurk research participants; it does not establish the claim for gig workers across digital labor platforms. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Flexibility was an important reason for both men and women to work as gig workers, with women expressing stronger preference than men to fit gig work around their schedule.

“With survey data from Australia, Churchill and Craig (2019) found that flexibility was an important reason for both men and women to work as gig workers, with women expressing stronger preference than men to fit gig work around their schedule.”

• cites Churchill and Craig (2019) sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the sharing economy, trust is fundamental to multiple parties involved in these activities.

“In a review, Köbis et al. (2021) noted that in sharing economy, trust is fundamental to multiple parties involved in these activities.”

• cites Köbis et al. (2021) sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Pay does not impact the performance of crowdsourcing, but it does impact justice perceptions of workers.

“Although pay does not impact the performance of crowdsourcing, it does impact justice perceptions of workers (Auer et al., 2021).”

• cites Auer et al., 2021 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract and Discussion report that pay generally had no substantial effect on performance in this longitudinal MTurk study, while the Results report effects on distributive justice perceptions. The claim is broader and more absolute than the findings: the Results also identify significant pay effects on some data-quality measures. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Algorithmic management imposes irremovable boundaries that constrain workers' abilities to develop transferable competencies needed to pursue opportunities beyond precarious roles.

“In addition, Duggan et al. (2020) argued that algorithmic management imposed irremovable boundaries that constrain workers' abilities to develop transferable competencies (e.g., job-related skills, knowledge, career networks, mentoring, etc.) which are indispensable for them to pursue opportunities beyond precarious roles.”

• cites Duggan et al. (2020) sourcePartly supported

  Section 4.1 (Employment relations; page unavailable) says training and development opportunities in most app-work are severely limited or nonexistent, and describes workers seeking skills useful for their careers and networking opportunities. It does not argue that algorithmic management imposes irremovable boundaries or establishes that workers cannot develop transferable competencies needed to move beyond precarious roles. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Gig workers are restricted by career boundaries within and between organizations that prevent them from developing relevant career competencies and thus limit their mobility.

“Kost et al. (2020) noted that gig workers are restricted by the career boundaries within and between organizations that prevent them from developing relevant career competencies and thus limit their mobility.”

• cites Kost et al. (2020) sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Within-organizational boundaries impede gig workers' abilities to work directly with clients beyond platforms and achieve higher pay and promotions, whereas between-organizational boundaries constrain them from readily using their expertise to transition into traditional career paths.

“The within-organizational boundaries impede gig workers' abilities to work directly with clients beyond the confines of platforms and achieve higher pay and promotions, whereas the between-organizational boundaries constrain gig workers from readily using their expertise to transition into traditional career paths.”

• cites Kost et al. (2020) sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some studies found that because gig work offers higher flexibilities, gig workers could better schedule their work time; this was especially true for women who traditionally shoulder more domestic responsibilities.

“Some studies found that because gig work offers higher flexibilities, gig workers could better schedule their work time; this was especially true for women who traditionally shoulder more domestic responsibilities (Altenried, 2020;Anderson & Bidwell, 2019;Churchill & Craig, 2019;Hall & Krueger, 2018) including during the COVID-19 pandemic (Dunn et al., 2021).”

• cites Altenried, 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Anderson & Bidwell, 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Churchill & Craig, 2019 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Psychological contract theory is fundamental in understanding gig workers, as the traditional psychological contract between organizations and employees does not apply to the relationship between gig workers and the staffing intermediaries.

“Cropanzano et al. (2023) argued that the psychological contract theory is fundamental in understanding gig workers, as the traditional psychological contract between organizations and employees does not apply to the relationship between gig workers and the staffing intermediaries.”

• cites Cropanzano et al., 2023 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The literature search identified 908 initial records.

“In total, we identified 908 initial records.”

May combine two claims.

Of 144 articles that involved theoretical approaches, 49% examined the motivational aspect of gig work, 28% examined the cognitive aspect, 28% examined the social and relational aspect, and 9% examined the affective aspect.

“Of the 144 articles that involved theoretical approaches, 49% of them examined motivational aspect of gig work, 28% examined cognitive aspect, 28% examined social and relational aspect, and 9% examined affective aspect.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among the reasons for taking up gig work, financial reasons have received the most attention.

“Among them, financial reasons have received the most attention.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Work design theory has received the most research attention in the gig work literature, likely because of the salience of the work autonomy dimension in the design of gig work.

“For example, work design theory has received the most research attention, likely because of the salience of the work autonomy dimension in the design of gig work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

After screening abstracts for relevance, 410 articles were identified for subsequent coding.

“We screened the abstract of each paper to check its relevance to the present review and identified 410 articles for subsequent coding.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The review identifies three major features of gig work that present unique opportunities and challenges for gig workers: structural differences between gig work and traditional work, features of labor intermediaries, and opportunities for multiple jobholding.

“Researchers frequently reference three major features of gig work that present unique opportunities and challenges for gig workers, including structural differences between gig work and traditional work, features of labor intermediaries, and opportunities for multiple jobholding.”

May combine two claims.

Out of 76 articles examining output, work behaviors and performance had the most coverage (47%), followed by health and well-being (25%), career (21%), and other domains (17%).

“Out of the 76 articles that examined the output, work behaviors and performance had the most coverage in the literature (47%), followed by health and well-being (25%), career (21%), and other domains (17%).”

May combine two claims.

Our review above suggests that while relatively more studies have examined gig workers' psychological processes based on the motivational approach, fewer studies have examined gig workers from relational, cognitive, and affective approaches.

“Our review above suggests that while relatively more studies have examined gig workers' psychological processes based on the motivational approach, fewer studies have examined gig workers from relational, cognitive, and affective approaches.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The few studies on the impact of gig work on career are mostly based on contract workers in organizations.

“The few studies on the impact of gig work on career are mostly based on contract workers in organizations.”

May combine two claims.

Side hustles can both harm and enrich full-time job performance.

“Our review suggests that side hustles can both harm and enrich full-time job performance (e.g., Sessions, Nahrgang, Baer, et al., 2021;Sessions, Nahrgang, Vaulont, et al., 2021).”

• cites Sessions, Nahrgang, Baer, et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Sessions, Nahrgang, Vaulont, et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Gig work has a growing importance in the contemporary economy with organizations using more and more short-term arrangements.

“Gig work has a growing importance in the contemporary economy with organizations using more and more short-term arrangements.”

May combine two claims.

Compared with traditional workers, gig workers generally face higher financial instability and job insecurity, higher autonomy, higher career uncertainty, higher work transience, and higher physical and relational separation.

“Compared with traditional workers, gig workers generally face higher financial instability and job insecurity, higher autonomy, higher career uncertainty, higher work transience, and higher physical and relational separation (Ashford et al., 2018).”

• cites Ashford et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Work autonomy might be a mirage in some instances because gig workers on digital labor platforms are oftentimes managed by strict algorithms and thus have limited control during the contract completion process.

“However, work autonomy might be a mirage in some instances.Gig workers on digital labor platforms are oftentimes managed by strict algorithms and thus have limited control during the contract completion process (Cameron & Rahman, 2022).”

• cites Cameron & Rahman, 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Among the key differences between gig workers and traditional workers, higher work autonomy could be considered a major benefit of doing gig work, while most other differences represent challenges.

“Among these key differences, the higher work autonomy could be considered a major benefit of doing gig work, while most others represent challenges.”

May combine two claims.

Despite the intuition that gig workers are motivated to work for monetary and extrinsic factors, researchers have revealed the complexity of gig workers' motivations with content-based, context-based, and process-based motivation theories.

“In sum, despite the intuition that gig workers are motivated to work for monetary and extrinsic factors, researchers have revealed the complexity of gig workers' motivations with the content-based, context-based, and process-based motivation theories.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The four theoretical approaches (motivational, social/relational, cognitive, and affective) are relatively distinct from and complementary to each other.

May combine two claims.

Other people are pulled to gig work because they enjoy the flexibility and work-life balance associated with gig work, or because their professional abilities and competencies enable them to adopt gig work in pursuit of higher income.

“Second, other people are pulled to gig work because they enjoy the flexibility and work-life balance associated with gig work, or because their professional abilities and competencies enable them to adopt gig work in pursuit of higher”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The review conducted a comprehensive literature search using Web of Science, PsycINFO, Business Source Complete, and ProQuest Dissertation and Theses with two sets of keywords and forward and backward citation searches.

“We conducted a comprehensive and extensive literature search.”

• Also stated in: § 3 | LITERATURE SEARCH FOR THE PRESENT REVIEW · plain

  “First, we searched on Web of Science, PsycINFO, Business Source Complete, and ProQuest Dissertation and Theses with a combination of two sets of keywords.”

• Also stated in: § 3 | LITERATURE SEARCH FOR THE PRESENT REVIEW · plain

  “Second, we conducted forward and backward citation searches on related conceptual review articles (e.g., Ashford et al., 2007;Ashford et al., 2018;Cropanzano et al., 2023;Spreitzer et al., 2017;Watson et al., 2021).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Psychological needs fulfilled by on-demand work developed intrinsic motivation in gig workers, which further led to their identification with the professional service firm.

“They found that psychological needs fulfilled by the on-demand work developed intrinsic motivation in gig workers, which further led to their identification with the professional service firm.”

• cites Rockmann and Ballinger (2017) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among Uber drivers, self-set rather than assigned or participative goals were positively related to service performance through improvisation.

“Based on goal-setting theory, Açıkgöz and Latham (2022) found that among Uber drivers, the self-set rather than assigned or participative goals were positively related to service performance through improvisation.”

• cites Açıkgöz and Latham (2022) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Algorithmic management is often criticized for its lack of transparency, even being compared to an invisible cage.

“Meanwhile, algorithmic management is often criticized for its lack of transparency, even being compared to an “invisible cage” (Rahman, 2021).”

• cites Rahman, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In an ILO survey, 32% of gig workers who worked via digital labor platforms worked to complement pay from other jobs, and about one third of them relied on gig work as their main source of income.

“International Labor Organization (ILO) found in a survey that 32% of gig workers who worked via digital labor platforms were to “complement pay from other jobs” and about one third of them relied on gig work as their main source of income (Berg et al., 2018).”

• cites Berg et al., 2018Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Gig workers are often classified as independent contractors, whose legal status differs from traditional employees with full-time appointments in organizations and offers limited protections from employment and labor laws.

“Moreover, gig workers are often classified as independent contractors, whose legal status differs from traditional employees with full-time appointments in organizations and offers limited protections from employment and labor laws (Dubal, 2017).”

• cites Dubal, 2017Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

People with traditional full-time jobs can take up gig work through digital labor platforms in their spare time and even while they are on their full-time jobs.

“People with traditional full-time jobs can take up gig work through digital labor platforms in their spare time (e.g., Sessions, Nahrgang, Vaulont, et al., 2021) and even while they are on their full-time jobs.”

• cites Sessions, Nahrgang, Vaulont, et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The congruence between environment demands and individual abilities, broadly defined as skills, knowledge, and energy, could predict the choice of taking up gig work.

“He argued that the congruence between the environment demands and individual abilities which are broadly defined as skills, knowledge, and energy could predict the choice of taking up gig work.”

• cites Matthes (2021)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Almost 20% of workers in Canada in 2019 reported multiple jobholding, which was 30% higher than the data from 2011.

“For example, Glavin (2020) compared national surveys conducted in Canada regarding multiple jobholding and found that almost 20% of workers in 2019 reported multiple jobholding which was 30% higher than the data from 2011.”

• cites Glavin (2020) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Gig work is not only attractive to low-skill low-income workers but is also preferred by many professionals such as doctors, lawyers, accountants, and designers.

“Challenging many popular myths associated with gig work, Manyika et al. (2016) showed that gig work is not only attractive to low-skill low-income workers but is also preferred by many professionals such as doctors, lawyers, accountants, and designers.”

• cites Manyika et al. (2016)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Job resources such as work scheduling autonomy, decision-making autonomy, workplace social support, and task identity are related to gig workers' motivation.

“For example, Watson et al. (2021) proposed that job resources such as work scheduling autonomy, decision-making autonomy, workplace social support, and task identity are related to gig workers' motivation.”

• cites Watson et al. (2021) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The unique transactional nature of gig work and its lack of social and relational bonds make it important to consider the social and relational perspective.

“The unique transactional nature of gig work and its lack of social and relational bonds make it important to consider the social and relational perspective.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Gig work has a unique transactional nature and lacks social and relational bonds.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some ridesharing drivers treated their driving gigs as workplace games that they found meaningful, controllable, and winnable.

“She found that some drivers treated their driving gigs as workplace games that they find meaningful, controllable, and winnable.”

• cites Cameron (2022)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Narrative flexing allowed workers to selectively emphasize atypical positive or negative experiences to obtain psychological relief and construct their work identity.

“With such a strategy, workers could selectively emphasize atypical positive or negative experiences to obtain psychological relief and construct their work identity.”

• cites Anicich (2022) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Algorithms on digital labor platforms are typically designed with a focus on the extrinsic motivator of monetary rewards to prioritize efficiency, while gig workers' behaviors tend to be heavily controlled by algorithms and rating systems.

“Consistent with this belief, algorithms on digital labor platforms are typically designed with a focus on the extrinsic motivator of monetary rewards to prioritize efficiency, while gig workers' behaviors tend to be heavily controlled by algorithms and rating systems (Cameron & Rahman, 2022).”

• cites Cameron & Rahman, 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Higher individual job crafting motivated gig workers to stay resilient and more committed to their careers, while high collaborative job crafting compensated for low individual crafting efforts.

“They found that higher individual job crafting motivated gig workers to stay resilient and more committed to their careers, while high collaborative job crafting compensated for low individual crafting efforts.”

• cites Wong et al. (2021) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the relational game, workers strived for positive customer ratings by offering gifts and extra services.

“In the relational game, workers strived for positive customer ratings by offering gifts and extra services, whereas in the efficiency game, workers strived for maximizing the money they earn per time spent by minimizing any extra behavior.”

• cites Cameron (2022)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Professional cooks who transitioned from pop-up and underground restaurants to opening a standard food business used different vocabularies to describe their role identity.

“In a study of professional cooks who transitioned from operating pop-up (temporary) and underground restaurants to opening a standard food business, Demetry (2017) found that these cooks used different vocabularies to describe their role identity.”

• cites Demetry (2017) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Certain task characteristics (e.g., autonomy and task variety) and knowledge characteristics (e.g., job complexity and problem solving) can motivate gig workers because gig workers may perceive gigs as being more meaningful and thus feel more empowered.

“Based on job characteristics theory (Hackman & Oldham, 1975;Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006), they proposed that certain task characteristics (e.g., autonomy and task variety) and knowledge characteristics (e.g., job complexity and problem solving) can motivate gig workers because gig workers may perceive gigs as being more meaningful and thus feel more empowered.”

• cites Hackman & Oldham, 1975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The relationship between commitment and temporary workers' well-being is somewhat complex.

“Galais and Moser (2009) found that the relationship between commitment and temporary workers' well-being is somewhat complex.”

• cites Galais and Moser (2009) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Social exchange theory suggests that the relationship between two parties is based on a process of cost-benefit analysis.

“Social exchange theory, which suggests that the relationship between two parties is based on a process of cost-benefit analysis (Blau, 1964), provides a lens to understand gig workers' interactions with labor intermediaries.”

• cites Blau, 1964 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Workers with higher levels of alienation tend to develop stronger platform commitment, possibly because they have fewer alternatives and face high costs of switching platforms.

“They found that workers who have higher levels of alienation tend to develop stronger platform commitment possibly because they have fewer alternatives and face high costs of switching platforms.”

• cites Bucher et al. (2024)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gig workers' perception of meaningfulness is an important mechanism that explains how job design characteristics impact their work outcomes.

“In a conceptual paper, Schroeder et al. (2021) proposed that gig workers' perception of meaningfulness is an important mechanism that explains how job design characteristics impact their work outcomes.”

• cites Schroeder et al. (2021)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Gig workers have both alienation perceptions (powerlessness, meaninglessness, and social isolation) and platform commitment.

“Bucher et al. (2024) found that gig workers have both alienation perceptions (e.g., powerlessness, meaninglessness, and social isolation) and platform commitment.”

• cites Bucher et al. (2024)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Contingent workers were driven to work hard because of their own identity and self-concept rather than deriving their identities and self-worth from their jobs.

“She found that contingent workers were driven to work hard because of their own identity and self-concept rather than deriving their identities and self-worth from their jobs.”

• cites Padavic (2005) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the efficiency game, workers strived to maximize money earned per time spent by minimizing extra behavior.

“In the relational game, workers strived for positive customer ratings by offering gifts and extra services, whereas in the efficiency game, workers strived for maximizing the money they earn per time spent by minimizing any extra behavior.”

• cites Cameron (2022)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Gig workers are typically hired to complete specific tasks, and task completion and quality are important outcomes.

“Gig workers are typically hired to complete specific tasks, and the completion of these tasks, together with the quality of task completion, naturally becomes an important outcome.”

May combine two claims.

Rating systems regulate social interactions between workers and consumers, so workers have to engage in emotional labor to obtain more favorable ratings.

“As these systems regulate the social interactions between workers and consumers, workers have to engage in emotional labor to obtain more favorable ratings.”

• cites Gandini (2019) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Such emotional work is not mediated by managers or employers, and intimate emotional encounters may cross work role boundaries.

“Such emotional work is not mediated by managers or employers, and such intimate emotional encounters may cross the boundaries of work roles that seem unreasonable for many jobs (Macdonald, 2021).”

• cites Macdonald, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

For gig workers, task completion directly translates into pay, whereas labor intermediaries are interested in ensuring quality to maintain and increase their customer base.

“For gig workers, task completion directly translates into pay, whereas labor intermediaries are interested in ensuring the quality of task completion to maintain and increase their customer base.”

May combine two claims.

Although anticipatory compliance practices require extra effort, workers could increase control over their work process.

“Paradoxically, although these practices require extra effort, workers could increase control over their work process.”

• cites Bucher et al. (2021) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Some Upwork newcomers buy positive reviews, share accounts with friends, or purchase pre-approved accounts with desirable locations to increase the likelihood of getting contracts.

“For example, as Upwork prefers experienced workers, some newcomers would buy positive reviews, share accounts with friends, or purchase pre-approved accounts with desirable locations (e.g., Europe or the United States) to increase the likelihood of getting contracts (Anwar & Graham, 2020).”

• cites Anwar & Graham, 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Workers have stronger control before service but weaker or no control during and after service.

“They concluded that workers have stronger control before service but weaker or no control during and after service.”

• cites Cameron and Rahman (2022) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Stand-up comedians engaged in emotional labor when interacting with customers and put on necessary emotional displays when negotiating pay and dealing with freelance work-related insecurity with multiple employers.

“Butler and Stoyanova Russell (2018) found that stand-up comedians not only engaged in emotional labor when interacting with customers but also put on necessary emotional displays when they negotiated pay and dealt with conditions of freelance work-related insecurity with multiple employers.”

• cites Butler and Stoyanova Russell (2018) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Affects and emotions are an integral aspect of gig work, although they have received relatively limited coverage in the extant literature compared with other perspectives.

“Affects and emotions are an integral aspect of gig work, although they have received relatively limited coverage in the extant literature compared with other perspectives.”

May combine two claims.

Gig workers' customer evaluations serve as surrogates for their performance ratings and affect the likelihood of their future orders.

“Indeed, gig workers' customer evaluations not only serve as surrogates for their performance ratings but also affect the likelihood of their future orders (Kellogg et al., 2020).”

• cites Kellogg et al., 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Emotional labor is at the heart of the labor process in digital labor platforms because of customer rating systems.

“Based on labor process theory, Gandini (2019) proposed that emotional labor is at the heart of the labor process in the digital labor platforms because of customer rating systems.”

• cites Gandini (2019) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The four-factor model of justice (distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice) remained valid for contingent workers and was related to their work attitudes.

“They found that the four-factor model of justice (i.e., distributive justice, procedural justice, interpersonal justice, and informational justice) remained valid for contingent workers and was related to their work attitudes.”

• cites Camerman et al. (2007) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Job performance is composed of three distinct groups of behaviors: task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance.

“Research has found that job performance is composed of three distinct groups of behaviors, including task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002).”

• cites Rotundo & Sackett, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Temporary workers' commitment towards the client organization was positively related to well-being when they worked there, but the association became negative when they experienced reassignment.

“While temporary workers' commitment towards the client organization was positively related to workers' well-being when they work there, the commitment-well-being association became negative when temporary workers experienced reassignment.”

• cites Galais and Moser (2009) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

For gig workers who engage in frequent interpersonal contacts with clients to deliver services, emotional labor can be part of their job.

“For gig workers who engage in frequent interpersonal contacts with clients to deliver services, emotional labor can be part of their job.”

May combine two claims.

Gig workers are at a higher risk for traffic accidents, social isolation, schedule irregularity, and burnout.

“Given that gig workers are at a higher risk for traffic accidents, social isolation, schedule irregularity, and burnout, researchers have called for attention to their health and well-being (Keith et al., 2020).”

• cites Keith et al., 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Platforms allow customers to access organizational power such as directing, monitoring, and evaluating workers; customers may engage in abusive behaviors; workers reduce time allocation to protect themselves.

“Maffie (2022) found that as platforms allow customers to get access to organizational power such as directing, monitoring, and evaluating workers, customers may engage in a series of abusive behaviors towards workers, who in turn reduce workers' time allocation to protect themselves.”

• cites Maffie (2022)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

While driving, gig drivers sometimes violated speed limits due to time pressure and had to use their phones to respond to the app.

“While they drive, they sometimes violated speed limits due to time pressure and had to use their phones to respond to the app.”

• cites Christie and Ward (2019) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Gig drivers who continue to work despite fatigue face increased risk of accidents.

“For example, when gig drivers continue to work despite fatigue, they are faced with increased risk of accidents.”

May combine two claims.

Rating metrics and algorithms may not be transparent to gig workers, adding to their anxiety.

“Further adding to their anxiety is the fact that the rating metrics and algorithms may not be transparent to them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Contractors engage in OCBs with the hope of increasing future contract opportunities, and OCBs are relevant only to high performing contractors who voluntarily seek their contracting roles.

“These findings were consistent with previous arguments that contractors engage in OCBs with the hope of increasing future contract opportunities (Cabrera & Cabrera, 2005) and that OCBs are relevant only to the high performing contractors who voluntarily seek their contracting roles (Flinchbaugh et al., 2020).”

• cites Cabrera & Cabrera, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Flinchbaugh et al., 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

London Uber drivers remain at the lower end of income distribution but reported higher levels of life satisfaction than other London workers in traditional work arrangements.

“With a representative survey of London Uber drivers, Berger et al. (2019) found that although Uber drivers remain at the lower end of income distribution, they reported higher levels of life satisfaction than other London workers in traditional work arrangements.”

• cites Berger et al. (2019) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Factors in the on-demand driving context may harm sleep health in terms of sleep duration, satisfaction, efficiency, and timing, which further lead to fatigue that may result in safety accidents, injuries, and health issues.

“They proposed that some factors in the on-demand driving context may harm sleep health in terms of sleep duration, satisfaction, efficiency, and timing which further lead to fatigue that may result in safety accidents, injuries, and health issues.”

• cites Crain et al. (2020) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some studies reported that contractors engaged in more OCBs than employees, whereas other studies indicated that OCBs are only relevant to some contractors.

“Some studies reported that contractors engaged in more OCBs than employees (Ang & Slaughter, 2006;Pearce, 2017), whereas other studies indicated that OCBs are only relevant to some contractors.”

• cites Ang & Slaughter, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Pearce, 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Workers who treated MTurk as a primary income source reported less enjoyment and lower life satisfaction, whereas workers who treated MTurk as a job with more engagement in online communities and a regular work schedule reported more enjoyment.

“Workers who treated MTurk as a primary income source reported less enjoyment and lower life satisfaction, whereas workers who treated MTurk as a job with more engagement in online communities and a regular work schedule reported more enjoyment.”

• cites Keith et al. (2020) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Even for gig workers who work in organizations as temporary helpers, their interest in using influence tactics and the importance of ratings become low.

“Even for gig workers who work in organizations as temporary helpers, their interest in using influence tactics and the importance of ratings become low.”

May combine two claims.

App-based drivers expressed very high levels of anxiety for infection of COVID-19 as well as a high stress level.

“Beckman et al. (2021) surveyed app-based drivers and found that they expressed very high levels of anxiety for infection of COVID-19 as well as a high stress level.”

• cites Beckman et al. (2021) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Among Uber drivers, those who value flexibility and autonomy tend to report higher life satisfaction, whereas those who prefer work as an employee tend to report lower life satisfaction and higher anxiety.

“Berger et al. (2019) found that those who value flexibility and autonomy tend to report higher life satisfaction, whereas those who prefer work as an employee tend to report lower life satisfaction and higher anxiety.”

• cites Berger et al. (2019) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Workers sometimes withhold output from clients to game the system or sabotage service when experiencing negative customer interactions.

“Workers sometimes withhold output from clients to further game the system (Anwar & Graham, 2020) or sabotage service when experiencing negative customer interactions (Xiongtao et al., 2021).”

• cites Anwar & Graham, 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Xiongtao et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Performance evaluation is either unstandardized or ignored for contractors who work in client organizations, or oversimplified for digital labor platform workers whose performance mainly relies on customer evaluation.

“In contrast, the performance evaluation is either unstandardized or ignored for contractors who work in client organizations or oversimplified for digital labor platform workers whose performance mainly relies on customer evaluation.”

May combine two claims.

High performing contractors advocated to other people the organizations they worked for, whereas adjunct faculty members who were forced into contractor roles reported fewer OCBs.

“For example, Finch et al. (2015) found that high performing contractors advocated to other people the organizations they worked for, whereas Feldman and Turnley (2004) found that adjunct faculty members who were forced into contractor roles reported fewer OCBs.”

• cites Finch et al. (2015) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Feldman and Turnley (2004) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Gig workers who accepted the public moralization of their work during the COVID-19 pandemic were more likely to minimize their extra-role behaviors, whereas those who wrestled with the hero narrative were more likely to do more extra-role helping to earn moral credentials.

“Specifically, gig workers who accepted the public moralization of their work during the COVID-19 pandemic were more likely to minimize their extra-role behaviors, whereas those who wrestled with the hero narrative were more likely to do more extra-role helping to earn moral credentials.”

• cites Cameron et al. (2022)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

42% of surveyed gig drivers experienced collisions, with 10% being injured themselves.

“Christie and Ward (2019) found that 42% of the gig drivers they surveyed experienced collisions, with 10% being injured themselves.”

• cites Christie and Ward (2019) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Career path uncertainty is a key concern for gig workers and has attracted much attention.

“In sum, career path uncertainty is a key concern for gig workers and has attracted much attention.”

May combine two claims.

Sessions, Nahrgang, Vaulont, et al. (2021) found that the performance enrichment effect through the affective pathway was stronger than the cognitive pathway, making the overall effect of side-hustles on full-time job performance positive.

“Overall, they found that the performance enrichment effect through the affective pathway was stronger than the cognitive pathway, making the overall effect of side-hustles on full-time job performance positive.”

• cites Sessions, Nahrgang, Vaulont, et al. (2021) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Gig workers faced higher health and safety risks, had higher anxiety levels, and may overwork with irregular schedules.

“On the negative side, gig workers faced higher health and safety risks, had higher anxiety levels, and may overwork with irregular schedules.”

May combine two claims.

Gig workers have a higher level of job autonomy and flexibility and need to deal with the downsides of lack of structural support from organizations.

“With a higher level of job autonomy and flexibility, gig workers need to deal with the downsides of lack of structural support from organizations (Ashford et al., 2018).”

• cites Ashford et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Taking up gig work may make TaskRabbit workers stuck with gig work and less likely to find full-time jobs in traditional organizations.

“Based on the longitudinal interviews of 11 TaskRabbit workers, Ravenelle (2019) found that taking up gig work may make these workers stuck with gig work and less likely to find full-time jobs in traditional organizations.”

• cites Ravenelle (2019) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Status inconsistency between primary jobs and side hustles requires employees to navigate stress-inducing tensions, such as dealing with the confusion of one's work identities, which thus promotes more stress and emotional exhaustion.

“They argued that status inconsistency between primary jobs and side hustles requires employees to navigate stress-inducing tensions, such as dealing with the confusion of one's work identities, which thus promotes more stress and emotional exhaustion.”

• cites Nahrgang, Baer, and Welsh (2021)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Halo effects exist in online labor platforms.

“They found that halo effects existed in the online labor platforms.”

• cites Carr et al. (2017) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Multiple jobholding may deplete workers' personal resources and thus become detrimental for their main jobs.

“On the one hand, multiple jobholding may deplete workers' personal resources and thus become detrimental for their main jobs.”

May combine two claims.

For early career freelance songwriters, success of a first commercial hit was associated with faster transition from a closed network to an open network, and they were more likely to be commercially successful.

“With a sample of early career freelance songwriters, Lee and Gargiulo (2022) found that freelancers' success a first commercial hit was associated with faster transition from a closed network that could offer supportive resources to an open network that could bring more collaborative opportunities, they were more likely to be commercially successful.”

• cites Lee and Gargiulo (2022) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Organizations play a key role in shaping career paths in traditional organizations as they are responsible for training and promotion, as well as managing the talent pipeline.

“Organizations play a key role in shaping career paths in traditional organizations as they are responsible for training and promotion, as well as managing the talent pipeline.”

May combine two claims.

Contract workers have better control of work time than organizational employees and may be in a better position to turn down job opportunities and protect themselves from overwork.

“In contrast, Osnowitz and Henson (2016) found that contract workers have better control of work time than organizational employees-not having a fixed organizational membership nor strong social network at work, contract workers may be in a better position to turn down job opportunities and protect themselves from overwork.”

• cites Osnowitz and Henson (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Getting a higher-status side hustle may create unexpected problems such as increasing full-time job stress and harming full-time job performance.

“This study also indicated that getting a higher-status side hustle may create unexpected problems such as increasing full-time job stress and harming full-time job performance.”

• cites Nahrgang, Baer, and Welsh (2021)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Film production individuals developed positive relationships (trust, social unity, and commitment) with others so they could collaborate and remain employable in the industry.

“They also developed positive relationships (e.g., trust, social unity, and commitment) with other individuals so that they could collaborate with them and remain employable in this industry.”

• cites Csillag (2021)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Workers not bounded by traditional employment relations are constrained by the market because they need to maintain a good reputation.

“Evans et al. (2004) Although their work is not bounded by traditional employment relations, these workers are constrained by the market, as they need to maintain a good reputation.”

• cites Evans et al. (2004) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The boundaryless career perspective suggests that workers can take greater initiative over their own career development, including competency development.

“Recent work on the boundaryless career perspective suggests that workers can take greater initiative over their own career development, including competency development (Forrier et al., 2009;Miles & Snow, 1996).”

• cites Forrier et al., 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Miles & Snow, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Doctors who provided online medical service experienced higher meaningfulness because they could care for patients who live in remote areas who would otherwise not be able to receive high-quality health-care service.

“Although doctors experienced higher meaningfulness because they could care for patients who live in remote areas who would otherwise not be able to receive high-quality health-care service, hospitals fell victim to such time-theft behavior.”

• cites Wang (2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

If employees utilize the flexibility of remote work to engage in gig work, this defeats the purpose of the work-from-home policies.

“However, if employees utilize the flexibility to engage in gig work, this defeats the purpose of the work-from-home policies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Professionals may seek independent work as a new career choice other than staying within the organizational boundary.

“Professionals may seek independent work as a new career choice other than staying within the organizational boundary (McCallum et al., 2019).”

• cites McCallum et al., 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Poverty can restrict many people's access to gig work due to low levels of skills and training as well as limited devices and equipment.

“On the other hand, poverty can also restrict many people's access to gig work due to low levels of skills and training as well as limited devices and equipment.”

May combine two claims.

Gig workers performing on digital labor platforms may lack employment protections such as a minimum wage, overwork, right to collective bargaining, or health insurance or safety support.

“Gig workers performing on digital labor platforms may lack employment protections such as a minimum wage, overwork, right to collective bargaining, or health insurance or safety support (e.g., Bertolini et al., 2021;Stewart & Stanford, 2017;Sutherland et al., 2020;Wood et al., 2019).”

• cites Bertolini et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Stewart & Stanford, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sutherland et al., 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

When white-collar professionals engage in gig work, their side hustle may run counter to their professional images of high competency, thus posing a threat to tarnish their professional images and even leading to discounting of their competence in their professional roles.

“When white-collar professionals engage in gig work, their side hustle may run counter to their professional images of high competency, thus posing a threat to tarnish their professional images and even leading to discounting of their competence in their professional roles (Caza et al., 2022).”

• cites Caza et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Gig work can enable some individuals to escape poverty because many digital labor platforms provide access to the global market.

“On the one hand, gig work can enable some individuals to escape poverty, since many digital labor platforms provide access to the global market.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The availability of gig work as a career choice has fundamentally changed people's perceptions and options of career development.

“The availability of gig work as a career choice has fundamentally changed people's perceptions and options of career development.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

When employees could act based on their true values and beliefs, they get more positive psychological resources which could further shape their work attitudes and behaviors.

“When employees could act based on their true values and beliefs, they get more positive psychological resources which could further shape their work attitudes and behaviors (Song et al., 2021).”

• cites Song et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The gig economy brings new challenges to multiple jobholders and organizations, as the ease of access to gigs makes it easy for employees with traditional jobs to engage in side hustles.

“The gig economy brings new challenges to multiple jobholders and organizations, as the ease of access to gigs makes it easy for employees with traditional jobs to engage in side hustles.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The ease of access to gigs makes it easy for employees with traditional jobs to engage in side hustles.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The nature of gig work may hinder the accumulations of human and social capital which are inherent in social networks, thus hampering one's ability to identify future career opportunities.

“The nature of gig work may hinder the accumulations of human and social capital which are inherent in social networks, thus hampering one's ability to identify future career opportunities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Aside from stealing work time, employees could potentially use resources at work for one's side hustle.

“Aside from stealing work time, employees could potentially use resources at work (e.g., computers and office supplies) for one's side hustle as well.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Research has found that employee authenticity is an important predictor of work attitudes and behaviors.

“Research has found that employee authenticity is an important predictor of work attitudes and behaviors.”

• cites Song et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Working in the gig economy differs from traditional employment in organizations, and as a result, theories grounded in traditional employment settings may not automatically apply to gig work.