Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism

In the paper

“paradoxical effects can arise when incentive magnitude becomes either very small or very large.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gneezy & Rustichini 2000
• Not checked yetcites Ariely et al. 2009
• Not checked yetcites Baumeister 1984

In the paper

“the proposal that conflict may act as an aversive signal prompting task avoidance”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Botvinick 2007

In the paper

“some research has suggested the existence of an undermining effect, according to which the introduction of extrinsic (e.g., monetary) rewards can reduce the intrinsic motivation associated with a task”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Murayama et al. 2010

In the paper

“Control is motivated.”

In the paper

“self-control exertion at Time 1 leads to the motivated switching of task priorities, wherein mental work becomes increasingly aversive, making mental leisure increasingly attractive”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Inzlicht et al. 2014

In the paper

“we argue that neuroscientific evidence plays a critical role in understanding the mechanisms by which motivation and cognitive control interact.”

In the paper

“incentives are liable to trigger performance improvements primarily in task settings where adjustments in the intensity or direction of control tend to be efficacious”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Camerer & Hogarth 1999
• Not checked yetcites Bonner et al. 2000
• Not checked yetcites Awasthi & Pratt 1990

In the paper

“engagement in a control-demanding activity is followed by reduced persistence and/or poorer performance on a second task, compared to when that second task is preceded by a less demanding activity.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hagger et al. 2010
• Not checked yetcites Muraven & Baumeister 2000

In the paper

“control is known to vary in response to ongoing performance monitoring.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites St ürmer et al. 2011
• Not checked yetcites Boksem et al. 2006

In the paper

“Although all of these studies have observed enhancements in control with increasing incentives, it is important to note that this relationship is not inviolable.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Camerer & Hogarth 1999

In the paper

“Traditionally, these types of depletion effects have been explained in terms of a structural constraint on the capacity for sustained cognitive control”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Baumeister et al. 1998

In the paper

“Baumeister and colleagues (Gailliot et al. 2007, Masicampo & Baumeister 2008) have proposed that the resource underlying behavioral depletion effects and related phenomena is in fact blood glucose.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gailliot et al. 2007
• Not checked yetcites Masicampo & Baumeister 2008

In the paper

“CET does not explicitly specify the basis for strategy choice.”

In the paper

“In forcefield accounts, as represented by CET, cognitive actions are the result of equilibrium being reached between driving and restraining forces.”

In the paper

“resources have been decried as theoretical”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hockey 1997
• Not checked yetcites Inzlicht et al. 2014
• Not checked yetcites Kurzban et al. 2013

In the paper

“such theories introduce effort as a variable mediating between incentives and performance.”

In the paper

“Reward-based theories are founded on the idea that behavioral choices reflect comparisons of reward or value.”

In the paper

“Some initial evidence for the role of glucose was provided in studies that found glucose administration reversed the depletion effect”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gailliot et al. 2007

In the paper

“This approach views the operation of the control as involving an ongoing series of decisions, each aimed at maximizing expected utility.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Dayan 2012
• Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. 2013

In the paper

“In many settings, the answer assumed is that one may infer such values from the individual's overt choices.”

In the paper

“effort actually plays not one but two mediating roles.First, it determines the quality of performance (and thus, indirectly, the performance-dependent income), and second, it scales the cost associated with task engagement.”

In the paper

“These measures are necessarily indirect, serving only as potential biomarkers or reporter variables indicating the level of effort; they clearly cannot mediate the relationship between incentives and performance.”

In the paper

“Effort is purported to explain the relationship between incentives and performance, but it is also measured or inferred from the observed relationship between these two.”

In the paper

“The basic idea is to conceptualize action as the result of forces, akin to physical forces, that attract an individual toward a goal or else impede progress toward that goal.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Atkinson & Birch 1978
• Not checked yetcites Berridge 2004
• Not checked yetcites Hull 1943

In the paper

“the optimal amount of effort to invest is the one that maximizes net reward, i.e., the”

In the paper

“based on behavior alone, values cannot be measured independently of choice.Consequently, the assertion that choices maximize values is intrinsically circular.The observation that values are actually computed in the brain essentially breaks this circularity.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Padoa-Schioppa 2011

In the paper

“The idea that cognitive control may be inherently costly or aversive has cropped up not only in the depletion literature but also in connection with other topics”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Taylor 1981
• Not checked yetcites Bonner & Sprinkle 2002
• Not checked yetcites Smith & Walker 1993

In the paper

“Shenhav et al. (2013) presented a theory centering on the concept of the expected value of control (EVC).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. 2013

In the paper

“If these assertions are correct, if neuroscience offers a way to ground otherwise circular notions of reward and effort, then the role of neuroscience assumes central importance in the study of motivation and cognitive control.”

In the paper

“A different set of regions, including the ventromedial frontal and medial parietal cortices, has been widely reported to decline in activity during performance of control-demanding tasks and has thus sometimes been referred to as the default mode or task-negative network”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Buckner et al. 2008
• Not checked yetcites Fox et al. 2005

In the paper

“Jimura et al. (2010) found selective behavioral performance enhancements and individual differences effects of motivational context, which were statistically mediated by a shift in lateral PFC activity dynamics from a transient mode (activated late in the trial, during the response period) to a sustained and anticipatory mode (activated both tonically and early in the trial during working memory”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Jimura et al. 2010

In the paper

“a voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping study by Gläscher and colleagues (2012) identified a region within medial PFC associated with performance in both reward and cognitive control tasks; the investigators proposed that this region might play a mediating role in linking reward and control networks.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gläscher et al. 2012

In the paper

“strong direct connectivity exists between ventromedial frontal areas involved in reward processing and lateral PFC areas strongly implicated in control (Barbas & Pandya 1989, Cavada et al. 2000), alongside a pathway connecting the two areas via the caudate nucleus (Alexander et al. 1986).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Barbas & Pandya 1989
• Not checked yetcites Cavada et al. 2000
• Not checked yetcites Alexander et al. 1986

In the paper

“DA is known to have a range of effects on cellular physiology, such as altering neuronal excitability (Henze et al. 2000, Nicola et al. 2000) and enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio (Durstewitz & Seamans 2008, Thurley et al. 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Henze et al. 2000
• Not checked yetcites Nicola et al. 2000
• Not checked yetcites Durstewitz & Seamans 2008

In the paper

“When task events signaled an increasing opportunity for reward on one dimension, rising ACC activity was observed along with a greater behavioral bias toward the relevant target dimension.Moreover, the increase in ACC activity was accompanied by a shift in connectivity between the dorsolateral PFC and other PFC regions associated with each dimension”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Rowe et al. 2008

In the paper

“This suggests that motivational context can exert a sustained influence on PFC activity and that incentives can affect cognitive control in both a trial-by-trial and a contextual (block-based) manner.”

In the paper

“the lateral PFC may house a discrete set of hierarchically organized subregions, subserving different levels of control function”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Badre 2008

In the paper

“This structure has long been known to play a critical role in monitoring action selection and task performance as well as in triggering compensatory adjustments in cognitive control”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. 2013

In the paper

“a number of investigators have proposed that the ACC might play a central role in bridging between reward and control processing.”

In the paper

“Etzel and colleagues ( J.A. Etzel, M.W. Cole, J.M. Zacks, K.N.Kay & T.S. Braver, manuscript submitted) used fMRI pattern classification methods to demonstrate that task rules could be decoded more effectively on incentive trials compared to intermixed nonincentive trials.Moreover, the patterns of activity associated with each task were more distinct from each other, which suggests that incentives”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Etzel et al., manuscript submitted

In the paper

“neurons in dorsolateral PFC that code for specific locations were found to display sustained activity over the delay, consistent with a role in working memory maintenance.More importantly, on trials in which large rewards were offered for accurate recall, this delay-period activity was selectively enhanced.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Leon & Shadlen 1999

In the paper

“several investigators have suggested that a corresponding hierarchy resides within the medial PFC, which serves to regulate the lateral hierarchy based on motivational inputs”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Holroyd & Yeung 2012
• Not checked yetcites Kouneiher et al. 2009
• Not checked yetcites O'Reilly 2010

In the paper

“DA may sharpen cortical tuning (Gamo & Arnsten 2011), which could have the effect of heightening perceptual sensitivity and enhancing top-down attentional or control signals.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gamo & Arnsten 2011

In the paper

“Shenhav and colleagues (2013), who propose that the dorsal ACC computes the expected value of control, as defined previously, using this as a basis for selecting among candidate control functions, which are then implemented in other sectors of the lateral PFC.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. 2013

In the paper

“incentive cues occurring before the imperative stimulus were found to trigger activity in core components of the reward network (dopaminergic midbrain, caudate/putamen, and nucleus accumbens) as well as in lateral frontoparietal components of the control network.More strikingly, during the same period these two sets of regions also showed increased functional connectivity”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Padmala & Pessoa 2011

In the paper

“The vast majority of neuroscientific research on the relationship between motivation and control adopts what we have termed the reward-based perspective, viewing control operations as guided by a utility-maximization principle.”

In the paper

“Experimental support for this account has been provided in studies showing that during an oddball targetdiscrimination task, the long-run average reward value (across minute timescales) had a distinct influence on task reaction times (Guitart-Masip et al. 2011) and that this effect is modulated by pharmacological manipulation of DA levels (Beierholm et al. 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Guitart-Masip et al. 2011
• Not checked yetcites Beierholm et al. 2013

In the paper

“which is widely interpreted as an ERP correlate of conflict detection.”

In the paper

“Because the latter network tends to become more active when the subject is at rest, i.e., not engaged in effortful, controlled information processing, it is often referred to as the default mode network (Buckner et al. 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Buckner et al. 2008

In the paper

“theoretical work implicating tonic DA release in the vigor (i.e., intensity, speed) of responding (Niv et al. 2007).Under this account, tonic DA encodes the long-run average reward rate of the environment.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Niv et al. 2007

In the paper

“Esposito and colleagues (2014), who found that inducing mental exhaustion-resulting from sustained performance of a novel task-led to both increased activity (resting-state fluctuations) in the default mode network and decreased activation of the frontoparietal executive network.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Esposito et al. (2014)

In the paper

“These results were interpreted as indicating an overmotivation effect, with an imbalance between activation in subcortical (reward-related) versus prefrontal (cognitive) regions leading toward a shift from more goal-directed to habitual guidance of behavior”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mobbs et al. 2009

In the paper

“The authors interpret this finding as reflecting a reduction in top-down control of reward representations in orbitofrontal cortex.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wagner et al. (2013)

In the paper

“Compared to low-incentive trials, high-incentive trials were associated with both poorer performance and increased activity in the DA midbrain and dorsal striatum.Moreover, these effects were linked, in that participants showing the strongest responses in these regions also showed the largest incentive-linked performance decrements.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mobbs et al. 2009

In the paper

“Braver and colleagues (Braver 2012, Braver et al. 2007) proposed a theory of dual mechanisms of control, under which proactive control processes reflect context-triggered updating and active maintenance of task goals in lateral PFC and are dependent upon phasic and tonic DA modulation of PFC neuronal activity.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Braver 2012
• Not checked yetcites Braver et al. 2007

In the paper

“At the behavioral level, motivation impacts the dynamics of cognitive control on both short timescales, through performance monitoring, and longer timescales, as in the ego-depletion effect.”

In the paper

“A second general conclusion from the available neuroscientific data, again consistent with reward-based behavioral models, is that the exertion of control carries an intrinsic subjective cost and that this cost plays an important role in shaping control function.”

In the paper

“which suggests that a promotion focus (a focus on advancement and accomplishment) should produce better performance when incentives are framed in terms of monetary gain than when they are framed in terms of the avoidance of loss, whereas a prevention focus (a focus on safety and security) should produce the converse pattern.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Higgins 2000

In the paper

“Initial studies have suggested that the circuitry underlying cognitive effort-based decision making overlaps with that relating to physical effort, but it is also partially distinctive (see Schmidt et al. 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Schmidt et al. 2012

In the paper

“rising incentives can be understood as making it”

In the paper

“which is the difference between (a) the rewards expected from mobilizing control with a particular direction and intensity and (b) the inherent cost associated with this mobilization.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. (2013)

In the paper

“Croxson and colleagues (2009) observed an analogous integration between reward and effort demands in dorsal ACC, alongside signals correlating with net value in both ventral striatum and midbrain.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Croxson et al. (2009)

In the paper

“Shenhav et al. (2013), focusing specifically on the dorsal ACC, proposed that a core function of this structure is to compute the expected value of control”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. (2013)